IFADUNICEFWFPWHO
CAPÍTULO 1

1 FAO. 2017. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2017. Aprovechar los sistemas alimentarios para lograr una transformación rural inclusiva. www.fao.org/3/I7658s/I7658s.pdf

2 Cattaneo, A., Adukia, A., Brown, D.L., Christiaensen, L., Evans, D.K., Haakenstad, A., McMenomy, T. et al. 2022. Economic and social development along the urban–rural continuum: new opportunities to inform policy. World Development, 157: 105941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105941

3 DAES (Departamento de Asuntos Económicos y Sociales). 2018. World Urbanization Prospects 2018. En: Naciones Unidas. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://population.un.org/wup

4 DAES. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. En: Naciones Unidas. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp

5 Tefft, J., Jonasova, M., Adjao, R. y Morgan, A. 2018. Food systems for an urbanizing world. Roma, Banco Mundial y FAO. www.fao.org/3/i8346en/i8346en.pdf

CAPÍTULO 2

1 FAO. 2023. Los desafíos de la seguridad alimentaria mundial y sus causas: los conflictos y las guerras en Ucrania y otros países, las desaceleraciones y recesiones económicas y el cambio climático. Consejo, 172.o período de sesiones, Roma, 24-28 de abril de 2023. CL 172/5. Roma. www.fao.org/3/nl652es/nl652es.pdf

2 FSIN (Red de Información sobre Seguridad Alimentaria) y Red mundial contra las crisis alimentarias. 2023. Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2023. Roma. www.fsinplatform.org/global-report-food-crises-2023

3 FMI (Fondo Monetario Internacional). 2023. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, abril de 2023. En: FMI. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/download-entire-database

4 FAO. 2023. FAOSTAT: Cultivos y productos de ganadería. En: FAO. [Consultado el 18 de mayo de 2023]. www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/TCL

5 FAO. 2023. Índice de precios de los alimentos de la FAO. En: FAO | Situación Alimentaria Mundial. [Consultado el 4 de mayo de 2023]. www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/foodpricesindex/es/

6 Schmidhuber, J. y Qiao, B. 2022. Global food import bill set to increase at a slower pace in 2022, nevertheless to another record level. En: FAO, ed. Food Outlook – Biannual Report on Global Food Markets, November 2022, págs. 76-78. Roma. www.fao.org/3/cc2864en/cc2864en_indicator_1.pdf

7 FAO. 2022. Food Outlook – Biannual Report on Global Food Markets. November 2022. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2864en

8 Banco Mundial. 2023. Global Economic Prospects, January 2023. Washington, D. C. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/38030

9 OIT (Organización Internacional del Trabajo). 2023. World Employment and Social Outlook. Trends 2023. Ginebra (Suiza). www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/publication/wcms_865387.pdf

10 Banco Mundial. 2022. Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2022. Correcting course. Washington, D. C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity

11 Banco Mundial. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for sub-Saharan Africa. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, D. C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_ssa

12 Banco Mundial. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for Middle East and North Africa. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, D. C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_mena

13 Banco Mundial. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for South Asia. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, D.C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_sar

14 Banco Mundial. 2023. Macro Poverty Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2023. Washington, D. C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook/mpo_lac

15 FMI. 2019. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2019. En: FMI. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2019/October

16 FMI. 2021. World Economic Outlook (WEO) database, October 2021. En: FMI. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October

17 Banco Mundial, FAO, OCDE (Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos), ONU-Habitat (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para los Asentamientos Humanos) y Unión Europea. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxemburgo, Oficina de Publicaciones de la Unión Europea. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

18 FAO. 2020. Efectos de la COVID-19 en hombres y en mujeres y respuestas políticas equitativas en el ámbito de la agricultura, la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9198es

19 ONU-Mujeres. 2020. Whose time to care? Unpaid care and domestic work during COVID-19. Nueva York (Estados Unidos). https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Whose-time-to-care-brief_0.pdf

20 Mane, E., Macchioni, G.A., Cafiero, C. y Viviani, S. (En prensa). Why are women more food insecure than men? Exploring socio-economic drivers and the role of COVID-19 in widening the global gender gap. Documento de antecedentes para La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios 2023. Roma, FAO.

21 FAO. 2023. La situación de las mujeres en los sistemas agroalimentarios. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5343en

22 FAO y OMS. 2020. Dietas saludables sostenibles: Principios rectores. Roma. www.fao.org/3/ca6640es/ca6640es.pdf

23 OMS. 2020. Healthy diet. En: OMS. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet

24 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2019. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2019. Protegerse frente a la desaceleración y el debilitamiento de la economía. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/CA5162ES

25 FAO. 2023. FAOSTAT: Costo y asequibilidad de una dieta saludable (CoAHD). En: FAO. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/CAHD

26 Banco Mundial. 2023. Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP). En: Banco Mundial. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. https://pip.worldbank.org

27 DAES. 2021. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2021. Nueva York (Estados Unidos), Naciones Unidas. www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-2021

28 Banco Mundial. 2022. Macro Poverty Outlook. Country-by-country analysis and projections for the developing world. Annual Meetings 2022. Washington, D. C. www.worldbank.org/en/publication/macro-poverty-outlook

29 Banco Asiático de Desarrollo. 2020. The economic impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on developing Asia. ADB briefs N.o 128. Manila. https://dx.doi.org/10.22617/BRF200096

30 FMI. 2021. World Economic Outlook, October 2021: Recovery during a pandemic. Health concerns, supply disruptions, and price pressures. Washington, D. C. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/10/12/world-economic-outlook-october-2021

31 FMI. 2023. World Economic Outlook. A rocky recovery. Washington, D. C. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2023/04/11/world-economic-outlook-april-2023

32 Grosso, G., Mateo, A., Rangelov, N., Buzeti, T. y Birt, C. on behalf of the Food and Nutrition Section of the European Public Health Association. 2020. Nutrition in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Supplement_1): i19-i23. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa034

33 OMS y UNICEF. 2004. Low birthweight: country, regional and global estimates. Ginebra (Suiza) y Nueva York (Estados Unidos). https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43184

34 Jornayvaz, F.R., Vollenweider, P., Bochud, M., Mooser, V., Waeber, G. y Marques-Vidal, P. 2016. Low birth weight leads to obesity, diabetes and increased leptin levels in adults: the CoLaus study. Cardiovascular Diabetology, 15: 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-016-0389-2

35 OMS. 2023. Breastfeeding. En: OMS. [Consultado el 18 de mayo de 2023]. www.who.int/health-topics/breastfeeding

36 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2020. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2020. Transformación de los sistemas alimentarios para que promuevan dietas asequibles y saludables. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692es

37 Bhutta, Z.A., Berkley, J.A., Bandsma, R.H.J., Kerac, M., Trehan, I. y Briend, A. 2017. Severe childhood malnutrition. Nature reviews. Disease primers, 3: 17067. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrdp.2017.67

38 Johnston, R., Dhamija, G., Kapoor, M., Agrawal, P.K. y Wagt, A. de. 2021. Methods for assessing seasonal and annual trends in wasting in Indian surveys (NFHS-3, 4, RSOC & CNNS). PLOS ONE, 16(11): e0260301. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260301

39 FAO y Tufts University. 2019. Twin peaks: the seasonality of acute malnutrition, conflict and environmental factors in Chad, South Sudan and the Sudan. Roma, FAO. www.fao.org/3/ca6984en/ca6984en.pdf

40 OMS. 2021. Obesidad y sobrepeso. En: OMS. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.who.int/es/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight

41 Okunogbe, A., Nugent, R., Spencer, G., Powis, J., Ralston, J. y Wilding, J. 2022. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for 161 countries. BMJ Global Health, 7(9): e009773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009773

42 UNICEF. 1981. The International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes. Ginebra (Suiza).

43 OMS. 2023. Baby-friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) tools. En: OMS | Nutrition and Food Safety. [Consultado el 18 de mayo de 2023]. www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/food-and-nutrition-actions-in-health-systems/ten-steps-to-successful-breastfeeding

44 FAO, ACNUR (Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados), OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2023. Global Action Plan on Child Wasting. [Consultado el 18 de mayo de 2023]. www.childwasting.org

45 OMS. 2016. Report of the commission on ending childhood obesity. Ginebra (Suiza). https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/906889/retrieve

46 UNICEF. 2007. Technical note: how to calculate average annual rate of reduction (AARR) of underweight prevalence. En: UNICEF. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. https://data.unicef.org/resources/technical-note-calculate-average-annual-rate-reduction-aarr-underweight-prevalence

47 Kothari, M.T., Abderrahim, N., Coile, A. y Cheng, Y. 2014. Nutritional Status of Women and Children: a 2014 update on nutritional status by sociodemographic and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) indicators collected in Demographic and Health Surveys. DHS Nutritional Reports N.o 6. Rockville (Estados Unidos), ICF International. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/NUT6/NUT6.pdf

48 Masters, W.A. 2016. The economic causes of malnutrition. En: M. Eggersdorfer, K. Kraemer, J.B. Cordaro, J. Fanzo, M. Gibney, E. Kennedy y A. Labrique, eds. Good Nutrition. Perspectives for the 21st century, págs. 92-104. Cambridge (Reino Unido), Karger. https://doi.org/10.1159/000452378

49 UNICEF. 2022. Child food poverty: a nutrition crisis in early childhood. Nueva York (Estados Unidos). https://data.unicef.org/resources/child-food-poverty

50 UNICEF. 2020. UNICEF conceptual framework on maternal and child nutrition. Nueva York (Estados Unidos). www.unicef.org/documents/conceptual-framework-nutrition

51 Popkin, B.M. 2004. The nutrition transition: an overview of world patterns of change. Nutrition Reviews, 62(7 Pt 2): S140-143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2004.tb00084.x

52 NCD-RisC (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration). 2019. Rising rural body-mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults. Nature, 569: 260-264. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1171-x

53 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R. et al. 2021. The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28: 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466

54 Popkin, B.M. y Ng, S.W. 2022. The nutrition transition to a stage of high obesity and noncommunicable disease prevalence dominated by ultra-processed foods is not inevitable. Obesity Reviews, 23(1): e13366. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13366

CAPÍTULO 3

1 DAES. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. En: Naciones Unidas. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp

2 Christiaensen, L. y Martin, W. 2018. Agriculture, structural transformation and poverty reduction: eight new insights. World Development, 109: 413-416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.027

3 FAO. 2017. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación. Aprovechar los sistemas alimentarios para lograr una transformación rural inclusiva. Roma. www.fao.org/3/I7658s/I7658s.pdf

4 Johnston, B.F. y Kilby, P. 1975. Agriculture and structural transformation: economic strategies in late-developing countries. Londres, Oxford University Press.

5 Timmer, C.P. 2009. A world without agriculture. The structural transformation in historical perspective. Washington, D. C., American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.

6 Davis, J.C. y Henderson, J.V. 2003. Evidence on the political economy of the urbanization process. Journal of Urban Economics, 53(1): 98-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-1190(02)00504-1

7 FIDA. 2016. Marco Estratégico del FIDA (2016-2025). Favorecer una transformación rural inclusiva y sostenible. Roma. www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40237917/IFAD+Strategic+Framework+2016-2025_Spanish.pdf/82e3edb7-13b2-4082-944b-f71299a73f00?t=1521824858000

8 Castells-Quintana, D. y Wenban-Smith, H. 2020. Population dynamics, urbanisation without growth, and the rise of megacities. The Journal of Development Studies, 56(9): 1663-1682. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2019.1702160

9 Jedwab, R. y Vollrath, D. 2015. Urbanization without growth in historical perspective. Explorations in Economic History, 58: 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2015.09.002

10 ScienceDirect. 2023. Out-migration. En: ScienceDirect Topics. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/out-migration

11 Adger, W.N., Arnell, N.W., Black, R., Dercon, S., Geddes, A. y Thomas, D.S.G. 2015. Focus on environmental risks and migration: causes and consequences. Environmental Research Letters, 10(6): 060201. https://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/6/060201

12 Selod, H. y Shilpi, F. 2021. Rural-urban migration in developing countries: lessons from the literature. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 91: 103713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2021.103713

13 Turok, I. y McGranahan, G. 2013. Urbanization and economic growth: the arguments and evidence for Africa and Asia. Environment and Urbanization, 25(2): 465-482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247813490908

14 Tschirley, D., Haggblade, S. y Reardon, T., eds. 2014. Africa’s emerging food system transformation – Eastern and Southern Africa. East Lansing (Estados Unidos), GCFSI (Global Center for Food Systems Innovation). https://gcfsi.isp.msu.edu/files/7214/6229/3434/w1.pdf

15 Jayne, T.S., Chamberlin, J., Traub, L., Sitko, N., Muyanga, M., Yeboah, F.K., Anseeuw, W. et al. 2016. Africa’s changing farm size distribution patterns: the rise of medium-scale farms. Agricultural Economics, 47(S1): 197-214. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/agec.12308

16 Mueller, V., Sheriff, G., Dou, X. y Gray, C. 2020. Temporary migration and climate variation in eastern Africa. World Development, 126: 104704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104704

17 FAO, FIDA, OIM (Organización Internacional para las Migraciones) y PMA. 2018. The linkages between migration, agriculture, food security and rural development. Roma. www.fao.org/3/CA0922EN/CA0922EN.pdf

18 de Bruin, S. y Holleman, C. 2023. Urbanization is transforming agrifood systems across the rural–urban continuum creating challenges and opportunities to access affordable healthy diets. Documento de trabajo para El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2023. Economía del desarrollo agrícola de la FAO. Estudio técnico N.o 23-08. Roma, FAO.

19 Mortreux, C., de Campos, R.S. y Adger, W.N. 2018. Mobility, displacement and migration, and their interactions with vulnerability and adaptation to environmental risks. Routledge Handbook of Environmental Displacement and Migration, págs. 29-41. Londres, Routledge.

20 Afifi, T. 2011. Economic or environmental migration? The push factors in Niger. International Migration, 49(s1): e95–e124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2010.00644.x

21 Adams, H. 2016. Why populations persist: mobility, place attachment and climate change. Population and Environment, 37(4): 429-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-015-0246-3

22 Penning-Rowsell, E.C., Sultana, P. y Thompson, P.M. 2013. The ‘last resort’? Population movement in response to climate-related hazards in Bangladesh. Environmental Science & Policy, 27: S44-S59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2012.03.009

23 EUROSTAT (Oficina Estadística de la Unión Europea). 2000. Glossary on demographic statistics, 2000 edition. Luxemburgo, Comisión Europea.

24 Regassa, N. y Stoecker, B.J. 2012. Household food insecurity and hunger among households in Sidama district, southern Ethiopia. Public Health Nutrition, 15(7): 1276-1283. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980011003119

25 Tegegne, A.D. y Penker, M. 2016. Determinants of rural out-migration in Ethiopia: who stays and who goes? Demographic Research, 35(34): 1011-1044. https://dx.doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2016.35.34

26 ACNUR. 2019. Global Trends – Forced displacement in 2018. Ginebra (Suiza). www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-global-trends-2018

27 ACNUR. 2020. Global Trends – Forced displacement in 2019. Ginebra (Suiza). www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-global-trends-2019

28 Cattaneo, A., Adukia, A., Brown, D.L., Christiaensen, L., Evans, D.K., Haakenstad, A., McMenomy, T. et al. 2022. Economic and social development along the urban–rural continuum: new opportunities to inform policy. World Development, 157: 105941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105941

29 Forster, T. y Mattheisen, E. 2016. Territorial food systems: protecting the rural and localizing human rights accountability. Right to Food and Nutrition Watch. Keeping seeds in people’s hands, págs. 38-44. Watch Consortium. www.brot-fuer-die-welt.de/fileadmin/mediapool/2_Downloads/Right_to_food_and_nutrition_Watch_2016_ENG_WEB.pdf

30 Bailey, C., Jensen, L. y Ransom, E. 2014. Rural America in a globalizing world: problems and prospects for the 2010s. Morgantown (Estados Unidos), West Virginia University Press. http://wvupressonline.com/node/538

31 Love, H. y Loh, T.H. 2020. The ‘rural-urban divide’ furthers myths about race and poverty—concealing effective policy solutions. En: Brookings. [Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2023]. www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2020/12/08/the-rural-urban-divide-furthers-myths-about-race-and-poverty-concealing-effective-policy-solutions

32 van Huijstee, J., van Bemmel, B., Bouwman, A. y van Rijn, F. 2018. Towards an urban preview: modelling future urban growth with 2UP. La Haya (Reino de los Países Bajos), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/en/publications/towards-an-urban-preview

33 DAES. 2022. Methodology of the United Nations Population Estimates and Projections. En: World Population Prospects 2022. [Consultado el 18 de mayo de 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp/Methodology

34 OCDE y Sahel and West Africa Club. 2020. Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020. Africapolis, mapping a new urban geography. París. https://doi.org/10.1787/b6bccb81-en

35 Naciones Unidas. 2022. UN Statistical Commission 2022 - Progress on implementation of the global urban and rural definitions. En: Share Your Green Design. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. www.shareyourgreendesign.com/events/un-statistical-commission-2022-progress-on-implementation-of-the-global-urban-and-rural-definitions

36 Comisión Europea. 2020. The degree of urbanisation, a new global definition of cities, urban and rural areas. En: Comisión Europea | GHSL - Global Human Settlement Layer. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/degurba.php

37 Banco Mundial, FAO, OCDE , ONU-Habitat y Unión Europea. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxemburgo, Oficina de Publicaciones de la Unión Europea. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

38 Cattaneo, A., Nelson, A. y McMenomy, T. 2021. Global mapping of urban–rural catchment areas reveals unequal access to services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(2): e2011990118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2011990118

39 Comisión Europea. 2023. Download the data produced by the GHSL. En: Comisión Europea. GHSL - Global Human Settlement Layer. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download.php?ds=smod

40 de Bruin, S. y Dengerink, J. 2020. The impact of urbanisation on food systems in West and East Africa. Opportunities to improve rurual livelihoods. La Haya (Reino de los Países Bajos), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-the-impact-of-urbanisation-on-food-systems-4090.pdf

41 McConville, J. 2014. Chapter 1: The peri-urban context. Peri-Urban Sanitation and Water Service Provision Report. Challenges and opportunities for developing countries, págs. 1-4. Estocolmo, Stockholm Environment Institute. www.jstor.com/stable/resrep00480.4

42 Dupont, V. 2005. Peri-urban dynamics: population, habitat and environment on the peripheries of large Indian metropolises – An Introduction. Peri-urban dynamics: population, habitat and environment on the peripheries of large Indian metropolises. A review of concepts and general issues. CSH occasional paper N.o 14. Nueva Delhi, Centre de Sciences Humaines.

43 Munro, G. 2022. Secondary cities are vital for Africa’s future – and their citizens know best how to improve them. En: Foro Económico Mundial. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/africa-secondary-cities-infrastructure

44 Cities Alliance y BAfD (Banco Africano de Desarrollo). 2022. The dynamics of systems of secondary cities series in Africa: urbanisation, migration and development. Brussels and Abidjan. www.citiesalliance.org/resources/publications/book/dynamics-systems-secondary-cities-africa

45 Allen, T., Heinrigs, P. y Heo, I. 2018. Agriculture, food and jobs in West Africa. West African Papers. París, OCDE. https://doi.org/10.1787/dc152bc0-en

46 Dorosh, P. y Thurlow, J. 2013. Agriculture and small towns in Africa. Agricultural Economics, 44(4-5): 449-459. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12027

47 de Bruin, S., Dengerink, J. y van Vliet, J. 2021. Urbanisation as driver of food system transformation and opportunities for rural livelihoods. Food Security, 13(4): 781-798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01182-8

48 Christiaensen, L., De Weerdt, J. y Todo, Y. 2013. Urbanization and poverty reduction: the role of rural diversification and secondary towns. Agricultural Economics, 44(4-5): 435-447. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12028

49 Gibson, J., Datt, G., Murgai, R. y Ravallion, M. 2017. For India’s rural poor, growing towns matter more than growing cities. World Development, 98: 413-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.014

50 Imai, K.S., Gaiha, R. y Garbero, A. 2018. Poverty reduction during the rural–urban transformation: rural development is still more important than urbanisation. IFAD Research Series 22. Roma, FIDA. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0161893817301059

51 Agergaard, J., Tacoli, C., Steel, G. y Ørtenblad, S.B. 2019. Revisiting rural–urban transformations and small town development in sub-Saharan Africa. The European Journal of Development Research, 31(1): 2-11. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-018-0182-z

52 Dolislager, M.J., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Mason, N.M., Reardon, T. y Tschirley, D. 2022. Consumption of healthy and unhealthy foods by the African poor: evidence from Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. Agricultural Economics, 53(6): 870–894. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12738

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161 Valicente, V.M., Peng, C.-H., Pacheco, K.N., Lin, L., Kielb, E.I., Dawoodani, E., Abdollahi, A. et al. 2023. Ultraprocessed foods and obesity risk: a critical review of reported mechanisms. Advances in Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advnut.2023.04.006

162 Szabo, S. 2016. Urbanisation and food insecurity risks: assessing the role of human development. Oxford Development Studies, 44(1): 28-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2015.1067292

163 Sohel, Md.S., Hossain, B., Sarker, Md.N.I., Horaira, G.A., Sifullah, Md.K. y Rahman, Md.A. 2022. Impacts of COVID-19 induced food insecurity among informal migrants: insight from Dhaka, Bangladesh. Journal of Public Affairs, 22(S1): e2770. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pa.2770

164 Xu, F., Crush, J. y Zhong, T. 2023. Pathways to food insecurity: migration, hukou and COVID-19 in Nanjing, China. Population, Space and Place, 29(1): e2640. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2640

165 Odunitan-Wayas, F.A., Alaba, O.A. y Lambert, E.V. 2021. Food insecurity and social injustice: the plight of urban poor African immigrants in South Africa during the COVID-19 crisis. Global Public Health, 16(1): 149-152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1854325

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1 de Bruin, S., Dengerink, J. y van Vliet, J. 2021. Urbanisation as driver of food system transformation and opportunities for rural livelihoods. Food Security, 13(4): 781-798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01182-8

2 de Bruin, S. y Dengerink, J. 2020. The impact of urbanisation on food systems in West and East Africa. Opportunities to improve rurual livelihoods. La Haya (Reino de los Países Bajos), PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-the-impact-of-urbanisation-on-food-systems-4090.pdf

3 Tabeau, A., Zeist, W., Berkhout, E., Doelman, J., Esch, S.V., Meijl, H. y Stehfest, E. 2019. Projections of African agricultural land and agri-food sector development: how much regional aggregation of Africa matter. Conference presentation at the 22nd Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, Varsovia (Polonia), 19-21 de junio de 2019. www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Projections-of-African-agricultural-land-and-sector-Tabeau-Zeist/ba110001183a51736c791312f95a9bf0b442b582

4 van Ittersum, M.K., van Bussel, L.G.J., Wolf, J., Grassini, P., van Wart, J., Guilpart, N., Claessens, L. et al. 2016. Can sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(52): 14964-14969. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610359113

5 de Bruin, S. y Holleman, C. 2023. Urbanization is transforming agrifood systems across the rural–urban continuum creating challenges and opportunities to access affordable healthy diets. Documento de antecedentes para El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2023. Economía del desarrollo agrícola de la FAO. Estudio técnico N.o 23-08. Roma, FAO.

6 Monteiro, C.A., Cannon, G., Levy, R.B., Moubarac, J.-C., Louzada, M.L., Rauber, F., Khandpur, N. et al. 2019. Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify them. Public Health Nutrition, 22(5): 936-941. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980018003762

7 Monteiro, C., Cannon, G., Jaime, P., Canella, D., Louzada, M.L., Calixto, G., Machado, P. et al. 2016. Food classification. Public health NOVA. The star shines bright. World Nutrition, 7(1-3): 28-38. https://worldnutritionjournal.org/index.php/wn/article/view/5/4

8 Bennett, M.K. 1941. International contrasts in food consumption. Geographical Review, 31(3): 365-376. https://doi.org/10.2307/210172

9 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Minten, B., Haggblade, S., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Dolislager, M.J., Snyder, J. et al. 2015. Chapter 4: Transformation of African agrifood systems in the new era of rapid urbanization and the emergence of a middle class. En: O. Badiane & T. Makombe, eds. Beyond a middle income Africa: Transforming African economies for sustained growth with rising employment and incomes, págs. 1-16. ReSAKSS Annual Trends and Outlook Report 2014. Washington, D. C., IFPRI. www.ifpri.org/publication/transformation-african-agrifood-systems-new-era-rapid-urbanization-and-emergence-middle

10 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D.L., Snyder, J., Hu, C. y White, S. 2014. Urbanization, diet change, and transformation of food supply chains in Asia. East Lansing (Estados Unidos), Michigan State University.

11 International Trade Administration. 2022. Ethiopia - Country Commercial Guide. En: International Trade Administration. [Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2023]. www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/ethiopia-roads-railways-and-logistics

12 Dolislager, M.J., Reardon, T., Arslan, A., Fox, L., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Sauer, C. y Tschirley, D.L. 2021. Youth and adult agrifood system employment in developing regions: rural (peri-urban to hinterland) vs. urban. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(4): 571-593. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1808198

13 Popkin, B.M. y Reardon, T. 2018. Obesity and the food system transformation in Latin America. Obesity Reviews, 19(8): 1028-1064. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12694

14 Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Fanzo, J., Minten, B., Vos, R. et al. 2021. The processed food revolution in African food systems and the double burden of malnutrition. Global Food Security, 28: 100466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100466

15 Reardon, T., Echeverria, R., Berdegué, J., Minten, B., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Tschirley, D. y Zilberman, D. 2019. Rapid transformation of food systems in developing regions: highlighting the role of agricultural research & innovations. Agricultural Systems, 172: 47-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.01.022

16 Reardon, T., Timmer, C.P., Barrett, C.B. y Berdegué, J. 2003. The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85(5): 1140-1146. www.jstor.org/stable/1244885

17 Sauer, C.M., Reardon, T., Tschirley, D., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O., Awokuse, T., Alphonce, R., Ndyetabula, D. et al. 2021. Consumption of processed food & food away from home in big cities, small towns, and rural areas of Tanzania. Agricultural Economics, 52(5): 749-770. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12652

18 Stage, J., Stage, J. y Mcgranahan, G. 2010. Is urbanization contributing to higher food prices? Environment and Urbanization, 22(1): 199-215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247809359644

19 Faye, N.F., Fall, T., Reardon, T., Theriault, V., Ngom, Y., Barry, M.B. y Sy, M.R. 2023. Consumption of fruits and vegetables by types and sources across urban and rural Senegal. Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies (En prensa). https://doi.org/10.1108/JADEE-05-2022-0090

20 GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. 2020. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 396(10258): 1223-1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2

21 Raghunathan, K., Headey, D. y Herforth, A. 2021. Affordability of nutritious diets in rural India. Food Policy, 99: 101982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101982

22 Headey, D.D. y Alderman, H.H. 2019. The relative caloric prices of healthy and unhealthy foods differ systematically across income levels and continents. The Journal of Nutrition, 149(11): 2020-2033. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz158

23 PMA. 2022. Fill the Nutrient Gap: Guinea-Bissau. Summary report. Roma. https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000140034/download

24 Moszoro, M. y Soto, M. 2022. Road Quality and Mean Speed Score. Documento de trabajo n.o 2022/095. Washington, D. C., FMI. www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2022/05/20/Road-Quality-and-Mean-Speed-Score-518200

25 Latino, L.R., Pica-Ciamarra, U. y Wisser, D. 2020. Africa: The livestock revolution urbanizes. Global Food Security, 26: 100399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100399

26 Banco Mundial, FAO, OCDE , ONU-Habitat y Unión Europea. 2021. Applying the Degree of Urbanisation. A methodological manual to define cities, towns and rural areas for international comparisons. 2021 edition. Luxemburgo, Oficina de Publicaciones de la Unión Europea. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/15348338/KS-02-20-499-EN-N.pdf

27 Dolislager, M.J., Holleman, C., Liverpool-Tasie, L.S.O. y Reardon, T. 2013. Analysis of food demand and supply across the rural–urban continuum for selected countries in Africa. Documento de antecedentes para El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2023. Economía del desarrollo agrícola de la FAO. Estudio técnico N.o 23-09. Roma, FAO.

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1 Moustier, P., Holdsworth, M., Anh, D.T., Seck, P.A., Renting, H., Caron, P. y Bricas, N. 2023. The diverse and complementary components of urban food systems in the Global South: characterization and policy implications. Global Food Security, 36: 100663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100663

2 Reardon, T. 2015. The hidden middle: the quiet revolution in the midstream of agrifood value chains in developing countries. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 31(1): 45-63. www.jstor.org/stable/43664670

3 Christiaensen, L. y Todo, Y. 2014. Poverty reduction during the rural–urban transformation - The role of the missing middle. World Development, 63: 43-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.10.002

4 Sonnino, R., Marsden, T. y Moragues-Faus, A. 2016. Relationalities and convergences in food security narratives: towards a place-based approach. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 41(4): 477-489. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12137

5 FAO. 2017. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación. Aprovechar los sistemas alimentarios para lograr una transformación rural inclusiva. Roma. www.fao.org/3/I7658s/I7658s.pdf

6 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2020. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2020. Transformación de los sistemas alimentarios para que promuevan dietas asequibles y saludables. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692es

7 Barrett, C.B., Benton, T., Fanzo, J., Herrero, M., Nelson, R.J., Bageant, E., Buckler, E. et al. 2022. Socio-technical innovation bundles for agri-food systems transformation. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Cham (Suiza), Publicaciones de Springer International. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-88802-2

8 Fears, R. y Canales, C. 2023. The role of science, technology and innovation in transforming food systems globally. En: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation, págs. 831-847. Cham (Suiza), Publicaciones de Springer International. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_44

9 Mercandalli, S., Girard, P., Dione, B. y Michel, S. 2023. Assessing rural-urban linkages and their contribution to territorial development: insights from Zimbabwe’s small and medium-sized cities. Sustainability, 15(7): 6223. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076223

10 FAO. 2022. Assessment of retail food environments and green spaces for healthy cities – Methodological guidance based on the experiences in Dar es Salaam, Lima, Tunis. Roma, FAO. www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0191en

11 Spires, M., Berggreen-Clausen, A., Kasujja, F.X., Delobelle, P., Puoane, T., Sanders, D. y Daivadanam, M. 2020. Snapshots of urban and rural food environments: EPOCH-based mapping in a high-, middle-, and low-income country from a non-communicable disease perspective. Nutrients, 12(2): 484. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020484

12 Nguyen, T., Pham Thi Mai, H., van den Berg, M., Huynh Thi Thanh, T. y Béné, C. 2021. Interactions between food environment and (un)healthy consumption: evidence along a rural-urban transect in Viet Nam. Agriculture, 11(8): 789. www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/8/789

13 Balineau, G., Bauer, A., Kessler, M. y Madariaga, N. 2021. Food systems in Africa: rethinking the role of markets. Africa Development Forum Series. París y Washington, D. C., AFD (Agence Française de Développement) y Banco Mundial. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e4ee2280-2f08-5c24-98f1-1b81745bf267/content

14 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

15 City of Mandurah. 2021. Advertising in road reserves policy. Council policy, POL-RDS 08. Mandurah (Australia). www.mandurah.wa.gov.au/-/media/files/com/downloads/council/governance/policies/roads/advertising-in-road-reserves-policy.pdf

16 Mayor of London. 2018. Mayor confirms ban on junk food advertising on transport network. En: Mayor of London. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.london.gov.uk/press-releases/mayoral/ban-on-junk-food-advertising-on-transport-network-0

17 Yau, A., Berger, N., Law, C., Cornelsen, L., Greener, R., Adams, J., Boyland, E.J. et al. 2022. Changes in household food and drink purchases following restrictions on the advertisement of high fat, salt, and sugar products across the transport for London network: a controlled interrupted time series analysis. PLOS Medicine, 19(2): e1003915. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003915

18 OMS. 2023. Global database on the Implementation of Nutrition Action (GINA). En: OMS. [Consultado el 23 de mayo de 2023]. https://extranet.who.int/nutrition/gina/en/home

19 OMS. 2022. Fiscal policies to promote healthy diets: policy brief. Ginebra (Suiza). www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240049543

20 Liu, S., Veugelers, P.J., Liu, C. y Ohinmaa, A. 2022. The cost effectiveness of taxation of sugary foods and beverages: a systematic review of economic evaluations. Applied Health Economics and Health Policy, 20(2): 185-198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-021-00685-x

21 OMS. 2022. Nutrition labelling: policy brief. Ginebra (Suiza). www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240051324

22 OMS. 2022. Protecting children from the harmful impact of food marketing: policy brief. Ginebra (Suiza). www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240051348

23 Barrett, M., Crozier, S., Lewis, D., Godfrey, K., Robinson, S., Cooper, C., Inskip, H. et al. 2017. Greater access to healthy food outlets in the home and school environment is associated with better dietary quality in young children. Public Health Nutrition, 20(18): 3316-3325. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017002075

24 CDC (Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades de los Estados Unidos). 2014. Healthier food retail: an action guide for public health practitioners. Atlanta (Estados Unidos), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpao/state-local-programs/pdf/Healthier-Food-Retail-guide-full.pdf

25 NYCEDC (New York City Economic Development Corporation). 2023. Food Retail Expansion to Support Health (FRESH). En: NYCEDC. [Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2023]. https://edc.nyc/program/food-retail-expansion-support-health-fresh

26 Local Government Association. 2015. Tipping the scales: case studies on the use of planning powers to restrict hot food takeaways. Londres. www.local.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/L15-427%20Tipping%20the%20scales%20WEB.pdf

27 Moyles, P. 2018. No fry zone opening statement to joint Oireachtas Committee Children and Youth Affairs. En: Houses of the Oireachtas open data APIs. [Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2023]. https://data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/committee/dail/32/joint_committee_on_children_and_youth_affairs/submissions/2018/2018-05-30_opening-statement-mr-phillip-moyles-chairperson-no-fry-zone-4-kids_en.pdf

28 Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety. 2008. Special act on safety control of children’s dietary life. Act N.o 12391. Cheongju (República de Corea).

29 Ministry of Housing and Local Government of Malaysia. 2012. Pekeliling KSU Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan: garis panduan penguatkuasaan larangan penjualan makanan dan minuman di luar pagar sekolah oleh pihak berkuasa tempatan. [KSU Circular of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government: guidelines for the enforcement of the prohibition on the sale of food and beverages outside school fences by local authorities]. Putrajaya (Malasia). www.moh.gov.my/index.php/database_stores/store_view_page/31/230

30 Community Health Councils. 2017. Fast food restaurant policy in a food desert: a health impact assessment. Los Angeles (Estados Unidos). www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/external-sites/health-impact-project/chc_fastfood_hia_2017_final.pdf

31 Reinbott, A., Schelling, A., Kuchenbecker, J., Jeremias, T., Russell, I., Kevanna, O., Krawinkel, M.B. et al. 2016. Nutrition education linked to agricultural interventions improved child dietary diversity in rural Cambodia. British Journal of Nutrition, 116(8): 1457-1468. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516003433

32 Kumar, N., Nguyen, P.H., Harris, J., Harvey, D., Rawat, R. y Ruel, M.T. 2018. What it takes: evidence from a nutrition- and gender-sensitive agriculture intervention in rural Zambia. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 10(3): 341-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2018.1478874

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247 OMS. 2021. Action framework for developing and implementing public food procurement and service policies for a healthy diet. Ginebra (Suiza). www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240018341

248 FAO. 2022. Código de conducta voluntario para la reducción de las pérdidas y el desperdicio de alimentos. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9433es

249 OCDE y Sahel and West Africa Club. 2020. Africa’s Urbanisation Dynamics 2020. Africapolis, mapping a new urban geography. París. https://doi.org/10.1787/b6bccb81-en

250 Sonnino, R. 2023. Food system transformation: urban perspectives. Cities, 134: 104164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104164

251 Vignola, R., Oosterveer, P. y Béné, C. 2021. Conceptualising food system governance and its present challenges. Wageningen (Reino de los Países Bajos), Wageningen University. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/561830

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253 Jani, A., Exner, A., Braun, R., Braun, B., Torri, L., Verhoeven, S., Murante, A.M. et al. 2022. Transitions to food democracy through multilevel governance. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6: 1039127. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.1039127

254 Halliday, J. 2022. Urban food systems: the case for municipal action. En: C. Sage, ed. A research agenda for food systems, págs. 199-219. Elgar research agendas. Northampton (Reino Unido), Publicaciones de Edward Elgar. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800880269.00019

ANEXOS

1 FAO. 1996. Methodology for assessing food inadequacy in developing countries. The Sixth World Food Survey, págs. 114–143. Roma. www.fao.org/3/w0931e/w0931e.pdf

2 FAO. 2014. Advances in hunger measurement: traditional FAO methods and recent innovations. Documento de trabajo n.o 14-04 de la División de Estadística de la FAO. Roma. www.fao.org/3/i4060e/i4060e.pdf

3 Grupo independiente de científicos nombrados por el Secretario General. 2019. Global Sustainable Development Report 2019: the future is now – science for achieving sustainable development. Nueva York (Estados Unidos), Naciones Unidas. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf

4 DAES. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. En: Naciones Unidas. [Consultado el 9 de mayo de 2023]. https://population.un.org/wpp

5 FAO. 2023. FAOSTAT: Balances de alimentos. En: FAO. [Consultado el 11 de mayo de 2023]. www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/FBS

6 Grande, F., Ueda, Y., Masangwi, S., Moltedo, A., Brivio, R., Selek, A., Vannuccini, S. et al. (En prensa). Global nutrient conversion table for FAO supply utilization accounts. Roma, FAO.

7 FAO. 2023. Situación Alimentaria Mundial. En: FAO. [Consultado el 11 de mayo de 2023]. https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/es/

8 FAO. 2002. Resumen de los debates: Medición y Evaluación de la Carencia de Alimentos y de la Desnutrición. Simposio Científico Internacional, 26-28 de junio de 2002. Roma. www.fao.org/3/y4250s/y4250s.pdf

9 Wanner, N., Cafiero, C., Troubat, N. y Conforti, P. 2014. Refinements to the FAO methodology for estimating the prevalence of undernourishment indicator. Documento de trabajo ESS / 14-05 de la División de Estadística de la FAO. Roma, FAO. www.fao.org/3/i4046e/i4046e.pdf

10 Banco Mundial, OMS y UNICEF. 2021. Technical notes from the background document for country consultations on the 2021 edition of the UNICEF-OMS-World Bank Joint Malnutrition Estimates – SDG Indicators 2.2.1 on stunting, 2.2.2a on wasting and 2.2.2b on overweight. Nueva York (Estados Unidos), Ginebra (Suiza) y Washington, D. C.

11 OMS y UNICEF. 2021. Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices: definitions and measurement methods. Ginebra (Suiza) y Nueva York (Estados Unidos). www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789240018389

12 OMS y UNICEF. 2023. Low birthweight joint estimates 2023 edition. [Consultado el 12 de julio de 2023]. https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/low-birthweight; www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/monitoring-nutritional-status-and-food-safety-and-events/joint-low-birthweight-estimates

13 Okwaraji, Y.B., Krasevec, J., Bradley, E., Conkle, J., Stevens, G.A., Gatica-Domínguez, G., Ohuma, E.O. et al. 2023. National, regional, and global estimates of low birthweight in 2020, with trends from 2000: a systematic analysis. The Lancet (En prensa).

14 Chang, K.T., Carter, E.D., Mullany, L.C., Khatry, S.K., Cousens, S., An, X., Krasevec, J. et al. 2022. Validation of MINORMIX approach for estimation of low birthweight prevalence using a rural Nepal dataset. The Journal of Nutrition, 152(3): 872-879. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxab417

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31 Lakner, C., Gerszon Mahler, D., Negre, M., Beer Prydz, E., Ferreira, F., Fah Jirasavetakul, L.-B., Joliffe, D. et al. 2020. How Much Does Reducing Inequality Matter for Global Poverty? Global Poverty Monitoring Technical Note 13. Washington, D. C., Banco Mundial. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33902

32 Jolliffe, D., Mahler, D.G., Lakner, C., Atamanov, A. y Tetteh-Baah, S.K. (En prensa). Assessing the impact of the 2017 PPPs on the international poverty line and global poverty. Policy Research Working Paper, 9941. Washington, D. C., Banco Mundial. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/353811645450974574/pdf/Assessing-the-Impact-of-the-2017-PPPs-on-the-International-Poverty-Line-and-Global-Poverty.pdf

33 Banco Mundial. 2022. Fact sheet: an adjustment to global poverty lines. En: Banco Mundial. [Consultado el 10 de mayo de 2023]. www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/05/02/fact-sheet-an-adjustment-to-global-poverty-lines

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