- ➔ Multiple technical solutions exist to achieve sustainable land, soil and water management. They depend on the socioecological context and production system. Their adoption by land and water users requires that the solutions be accompanied by the appropriate enabling environment.
- ➔ The productivity of rainfed agriculture can be improved through a more systematic adoption of conservation agriculture and the use of drought-tolerant crop varieties and drought-resilient practices such as soil moisture conservation, crop diversification and organic composting. These practices have the potential to make a significant contribution to the food security of millions of smallholder producers and to enhance soil health and on-farm biodiversity.
- ➔ Enhancing the productivity of water in irrigation can be achieved through a combination of water management and agronomic practices. Modernization of irrigation is the key to reducing yield gaps and increasing water productivity. For the long-term success of modernized irrigation systems, a benchmarking approach that encompasses technical, institutional, socioeconomic and environmental factors is needed.
- ➔ Approaches that contribute to better land and water management for pasture and feed production include improvement of water management and grazing practices, selection of drought-tolerant and water-efficient species (e.g. perennial forage grass), integration of alternative forage and legumes in pastures, and precision livestock farming technologies.
- ➔ The importance of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) in the world’s food production systems is growing. Hydroponics and vertical and rooftop farming are proven techniques used in cities around the world to increase the efficiency of UPA and reduce competition for land, water, energy and labour.
- ➔ Forests sustain the livelihoods of millions and contribute to global objectives such as climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as biodiversity conservation. Restoring degraded lands, promoting agroforestry, and building green value chains for forest products, including non-wood forest products, are critical for maintaining and tapping the potential of forests and trees for sustainable agrifood systems.
- ➔ Inland fisheries face significant threats from competition for water and land resources. While offering major potential for increased fish production, inland fisheries require an integrated approach to water management. Techniques such as cutting channels through levees to connect rivers with adjacent floodplains allow fish to migrate and spawn during flood seasons. Inland aquaculture – a rapidly growing practice – also offers opportunities for integrated food production: rice–fish farming systems are a prime example and contribute to both farm incomes and nutrition, while simultaneously using water more efficiently.
- ➔ Integrating sectoral solutions offers a unified model for sustainable land, water, forest and aquatic resource management that addresses multiple aspects of food security, climate resilience and environmental sustainability. Agroforestry, rotational grazing and forage improvement, and rice–fish farming are just a few examples of such integrated approaches. Together, these technologies and practices create a framework where sustainable resource use is tailored to specific landscapes and enhances resilience to climate change.
To reverse the trends associated with the unsustainable management of land and water resources and ensure global food security, land and water users around the world need to adopt technologies, practices and approaches that enhance ecosystem health, resilience and productivity, while ensuring inclusiveness and improving the livelihoods of the most vulnerable populations.
Appropriate governance, legal and regulatory frameworks, finance, research, extension services and market development are all elements of the enabling environment needed to support the adoption of these practices. Institutional support and an enabling environment are further discussed in Chapter 5.
Recognizing that there is no one-size-fits-all solution and given the wide array of often context-specific technical solutions, practices and innovations across different sectors, this chapter is not exhaustive and presents a few examples of technical options and innovations for sustainable plant production and protection; land and water management in irrigated and rainfed systems; urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA); rangeland, pastureland and forest and agricultural land restoration; and integration of inland fisheries and aquaculture within land-based agricultural systems. In addition, the chapter shows the interconnectedness between sectoral approaches and the need to adopt integrated solutions. Many of the approaches discussed here are aligned with and contribute to the UNCCD Land Degradation Neutrality objectives (Hartmann et al. 2024).
Technological solutions depend on socioecological context and production systems, of which there are a wide variety around the world. Practices need to be matched with land suitability to ensure that they are both sustainable and profitable and that they contribute to inclusive rural transformation.
Crop-based food production systems (rainfed and irrigated) are the most widespread, but these are not the only options. Agricultural lands, including pasture systems that support livestock production, also have global relevance. Forests account for up to 25 percent of rural household income in tropical and subtropical countries (FAO, 2022a). Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) play an important role in providing food, income and nutritional variety for millions of people worldwide. Inland fisheries produce about 12 percent of global fish supply, with 90 percent of production coming from small-scale fisheries (FAO, 2024a). The rapid growth of inland aquaculture, which now accounts for 63 percent of total aquaculture production, demonstrates its potential to support food systems, with freshwater fish supplying organic protein and nutrients.
Technical options for rainfed agriculture
Rainfed agriculture accounts for 52 percent of global crop production and is practised in areas where precipitation is usually sufficient to secure good harvests. This type of agriculture is common in a wide range of farming situations, from large- to small-scale systems. It supports millions of smallholder farmers in developing countries, with diverse cropping patterns that ensure income and food security and maintain biodiversity. Key staple crops grown under rainfed conditions include cereals and pulses.
When practised correctly, rainfed agriculture contributes to enhanced production, nutrition and environmental sustainability. Diversified cropping patterns support nutritious diets while increasing the resilience of farming practices. Practices such as crop rotation and cover cropping improve soil health and biodiversity. Technical innovations such as integrated plant nutrient management, integrated pest management, the adoption of drought-resistant crops, and water harvesting and soil management techniques are essential to boost the productivity of rainfed agriculture in a sustainable way.
The following are examples of technologies that contribute to addressing current challenges in rainfed agriculture.
Conservation agriculture
Conservation agriculture (CA) combines practices that help to preserve soil moisture, prevent runoff and erosion, and maintain soil structure; they include minimum tillage, cover cropping and crop rotation. Since 2008–2009, the CA cropland area has been expanding globally at a rate of more than 10 Mha per year. In 2015–2016, global CA cropland area was 180.4 Mha, corresponding to 12.5 percent of the total cropland area. In 2018–2019, global cropland area was 205.4 Mha, corresponding to 14.7 percent of total cropland area (Kassam, Friedrich and Derpsch, 2022). Conservation agriculture increases water infiltration and soil moisture conservation, and it reduces soil erosion by 50 percent (Pittelkow et al., 2015). In Southern Africa, where these practices have been widely adopted, crop yields increased by 15 to 25 percent and soil degradation was significantly reduced (Pittelkow et al., 2015).
Drought-tolerant varieties and drought-resilient practices
The development of drought-tolerant crop varieties is vital for maintaining productivity in rainfed systems facing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns due to climate change. FAO’s Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building has contributed to improve food security in arid regions worldwide by promoting drought-resistant crop varieties (FAO, 2025a). In Africa, for example, the introduction of drought-tolerant maize has led to significantly higher yields and reduced crop failure rates (Abate et al., 2017).
Rainwater harvesting and soil moisture conservation help to mitigate the impacts of drought and ensure more stable food production in rainfed agriculture. To cite just one case, Ethiopia has experienced notable success in using rainwater harvesting systems to boost crop yields and enhance resilience during dry seasons (Mekonnen et al., 2022).
In addition to these on-the-ground practices, early warning systems and climate forecasting tools play a crucial role in supporting both rainfed and irrigated farming. The FAO Agricultural Stress Index System (ASIS) is an example of an early warning tool designed to monitor agricultural droughts and assess crop conditions using satellite-based data (see Box 5).
Box 5FAO’s Agricultural Stress Index System
FAO has developed the Agricultural Stress Index System (ASIS) for the early identification of agricultural areas prone to being affected by dry spells or, in extreme cases, drought. The system has been in operation since July 2014 and is updated three times per month, as soon as new satellite data become available. The ASIS annual and multi-annual data archive (dating back to 1984) also contributes to various climate and socioeconomic studies.
The system focuses on detecting areas where crops are under stress due to water scarcity, providing timely information to decision-makers and farmers so that they can mitigate the impacts of drought. In addition, with the integration of artificial intelligence-driven climate models and satellite data, decision-makers can now better predict drought events and make informed decisions about water management and planting schedules (Cancela et al., 2019).
Crop diversification, composting and raised beds
Crop diversification and organic matter management are two important components of sustainable farming strategies. Crop diversification can contribute to better use of water and nutrients, improved plant health and enhanced overall farm productivity through a combination of practices such as well-planned crop rotations and biological pest control. Soil organic matter management, through green manuring, mulching and composting, helps to enhance the accumulation of organic matter in the soil and nutrient cycling (Altieri and Nicholls, 2018). Box 6 presents an example of the application of such practices in Cuba.
Box 6Crop diversification, composting and raised beds in Cuba
In Cuba, crop diversity, water efficiency, organic matter recycling and crop–animal synergies in raised beds over a 30-year period have enabled the supply of more than 50 percent of the fresh foods consumed in the country, while simultaneously creating 300 000 jobs and contributing over 1 million tonnes of food annually (RUAF, 2017).
Raised beds provide a medium for intensive crop production in soil elevated above the surrounding ground level, reducing exposure to contaminated soil from previous land uses (Altieri and Nicholls, 2018). By easing the management of crops, due to their elevation from the soil, raised beds also contribute to improving yields per unit of labour input (FAO, 2020a). The farmer-to-farmer movement launched by the Cuban National Association of Small Farmers in an effort to co-create and share knowledge has been a driving force for the adoption of improved practices that embrace agroecology (RUAF, 2017).
Composting is particularly relevant in urban and peri-urban settings where organic waste is abundant. The Madrid Agrocomposta municipal initiative has converted 23 tonnes of residents’ food waste into compost and fixed 2 400 kg of CO2eq in the soil since 2016 (Agrocomposta, 2021). Agroecology also presents a significant opportunity for recycling urban food waste. Ecuador’s AGRUPAR programme has successfully supported local food production in underutilized spaces in Quito, benefiting 1 300 productive units and enhancing social inclusion via farmers’ markets through responsible governance. Similar human and social values have guided interventions in Taiwan Province of China, where Indigenous Peoples’ research has made it easier to reclaim land rights. In Gorakhpur, India, low-external input practices such as management of effective microorganisms have significantly increased farmers’ incomes and resilience, illustrating the economic benefits of agroecological approaches (RUAF, 2017). Meanwhile, the ØsterGRO Community-Supported Agriculture initiative in Copenhagen embodies circular and solidarity economy as well as cultural and food tradition elements, fostering direct producer–consumer relationships and local foods while minimizing food and packaging waste by avoiding supermarket intermediaries (Shaw, 2017).
