Inland fisheries account for more than 12 percent of global fish production from less than 1 percent of the available aquatic habitat. In 2021, inland capture fisheries provided 11.4 million tonnes of fish, with 90 percent used for human consumption (FAO and AfDB, 2024). More than 20 percent of production originates in low-income and food-deficit countries, where fish serves as a vital source of nutrition. Fish delivers essential proteins, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins and minerals that are fundamental to human health and offer a higher density of bioavailable nutrients (FAO, 2024a).
Around 99 percent of inland capture fisheries production comes from small-scale fisheries (FAO, Duke University and WorldFish, 2023), often integrated into agricultural landscapes such as reservoirs, canals and rice fields. For instance, the Tonle Sap Lake fishery in Cambodia is one of the world’s most productive inland small-scale fisheries, supporting more than 200 fish species and millions of livelihoods through its seasonal flood-pulse system.
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food production sector and provides important opportunities to increase the production of nutritious foods. Inland aquaculture has experienced significant growth, accounting for 62.6 percent of the total aquaculture production of aquatic animals in 2022 (FAO, 2024a). Almost 90 percent of inland aquaculture comes from freshwater finfish farming, such as carp (Cyprinus spp.), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) and catfish (Pangasiidae, Claridae). Asia, particularly China, and countries of South and Southeast Asia dominate aquaculture production, accounting for more than 91 percent of the world’s inland aquaculture.
Promoting an ecosystem approach to inland fisheries and aquaculture
FAO promotes the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) and the ecosystem approach to aquaculture (EAA) (FAO, 2019, 2021). These approaches seek to manage aquatic resources sustainably and emphasize the balance between ecological well-being, human well-being and good governance. Both EAF and EAA encourage adaptive management, stakeholder participation and precautionary principles to deal with uncertainties and environmental risks. Both approaches include the development of management plans that take account of issues affecting ecological and human well-being. These plans typically consider a range of species, have multiple objectives, address issues at appropriate spatial and temporal scales, utilize both scientific and traditional knowledge, and address the interactions between inland fisheries and other sectors (FAO, 2019).
The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication (SSF Guidelines) (FAO, 2015) highlight the role of small-scale fisheries and emphasize the need for equitable access to resources, secure tenure rights and governance systems that ensure their sustainability. Tenure is also a key focus area in broader frameworks, such as the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (VGGT) (FAO, 2022f). By integrating fishers and fishery management in the VGGT, small-scale fishers are increasingly recognized as legitimate stakeholders in the management of shared natural resources, improving equity, coherence and sustainability across sectors such as land and water (see Box 15).
Box 15National Plan of Action for Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in Uganda
In Uganda, the National Plan of Action for Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries (NPOA-SSF) was launched in August 2023 to implement the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication. Small-scale inland fisheries play a critical role in Uganda’s economy, providing food for 15 million people and livelihoods for 5.3 million. The NPOA-SSF focuses on increasing visibility and empowering small-scale fishers by recognizing human rights, organizing governance systems, promoting socioeconomic development and managing the health of fish habitats. The objectives include managing fish habitats by addressing land-use changes and controlling pollution and invasive species (MAAIF, 2023).
To ensure sustainable fisheries, the plan highlights the importance of applying lake productivity potential, sustaining and increasing fish production and providing essential support services such as capacity building and infrastructure. It aims to regulate fishing, reduce illegal activities and improve market systems, while combating the impacts of climate change. The NPOA-SSF aligns with Uganda’s development agenda, contributing to key goals such as food security, poverty reduction and the sustainable management of fisheries through a five-year implementation strategy.
The Guidelines for Sustainable Aquaculture provide a comprehensive framework designed to address the challenges associated with aquaculture’s rapid growth and its impact on the environment and society (FAO, 2024d). Key areas include sustainable resource management, biodiversity conservation and social responsibility, with a focus on promoting decent work, gender equality and youth empowerment. The guidelines also emphasize efficient water use and reuse, recommending practices such as water recycling and nutrient recovery to minimize consumption, reduce pollution and enhance the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems (see Box 16).
Box 16Innovation in inland aquaculture
Methodological and technological innovations have modified the way that inland aquaculture is practised in many countries (FAO, 2024a). Earth ponds remain the most widespread method for raising finfish. Innovations in pond-based aquaculture focus on enhancing productivity and reducing environmental impacts. The in-pond raceway system, increasingly adopted in China and other Asian countries, confines the fish to “raceways” in a small portion of the pond, with the potential to double or triple production compared with traditional pond systems. Another example of innovation is cluster-based effluent treatment in fish farms, with constructed wetlands used as filters for water recycling.
Integrating fisheries and aquaculture in water and land management
Inland fisheries and aquaculture face significant threats from competition for water and land resources. Wetlands, floodplains and small waterbodies, which are some of the most productive environments for inland fisheries, are also the most vulnerable to agricultural expansion, water abstraction, drainage and other water infrastructures. For example, water stored in reservoirs for irrigation and hydropower can fragment river systems, disrupting fish migration and breeding cycles. Similarly, the canalization of rivers and the drainage of wetlands for farming significantly reduce fish habitats.
There is a need for much more integration of fisheries within irrigation system planning. Irrigation systems, traditionally designed for agriculture, can support fish production without compromising crop yields (Gregory, Funge-Smith and Baumgartner, 2018; Box 17).
Box 17Integrating fisheries into irrigation systems in Kirindi Oya, Sri Lanka
The Kirindi Oya irrigation scheme in Sri Lanka is an example of the successful integration of fisheries into irrigation systems. Originally constructed for agricultural purposes, the large reservoirs in the system were modified to retain more water for extended periods, leading to increased fish production. These reservoirs now serve as fish habitats, boosting local fisheries and contributing to food security. Moreover, the storage systems are increasingly used for stocking fish as part of culture-based fisheries, enhancing food security for local communities. The modification of water retention practices has created a sustainable source of livelihood for local communities, illustrating how simple changes in irrigation management can result in significant benefits for both agriculture and fisheries (Gregory, Funge-Smith and Baumgartner, 2018).
Floodplain fisheries also offer significant potential for increased fish production, especially when managed effectively in conjunction with agriculture. Techniques such as cutting channels through levees to connect rivers with adjacent floodplains allow fish to migrate and spawn during flood seasons. Additionally, there is a need in the land and water management sectors to acknowledge the importance of connectivity and natural flow regimes such as the flood pulse. Flood pulses, which allow for the seasonal expansion and contraction of rivers, are critical for fish reproduction and habitat connectivity. Without this natural variability, fish species struggle and the population declines, even if water quality is maintained.
Improving connectivity within irrigation infrastructure is key to supporting sustainable fisheries. Barriers such as dams and weirs often obstruct fish movement, reducing fish habitat availability. However, modifications to irrigation infrastructure, such as installing fish-friendly structures like fishways, can help to mitigate these challenges (Gregory, Funge-Smith and Baumgartner, 2018).
Restoring degraded wetland ecosystems
Restoring degraded wetland ecosystems, such as freshwater lakes and floodplains, can play a key role in supporting inland fisheries and enhancing ecosystem services. Restoring fish habitats in modified landscapes, such as reservoirs and irrigation canals, is key to ensuring the sustainability of fish production (Coates, 2023). Ecosystem-based solutions, such as re-establishing natural water flows and restoring riparian habitats, not only boost fish production but also provide broader benefits, such as flood protection and improved water quality. In African and Asian floodplains, restoration efforts have successfully increased fish stocks and agricultural productivity, creating a win–win scenario for both sectors (Coates et al., 2025).
The SSF Guidelines advocate ecosystem restoration as a means of securing the livelihoods of small-scale fishers while promoting biodiversity conservation. Incorporating these approaches into national and regional land and water management strategies can ensure that fisheries are sustained even in the face of increasing climate and development pressures (Coates, 2023).
