El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023

Glosario

1 FAO. 2021. Informe del Consejo de la FAO – 166.o período de sesiones, 26 de abril a 1 de mayo de 2021. CL 166/REP. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/nf693es/nf693es.pdf

2 TEEB. 2018. TEEB for Agriculture & Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations Report. Ginebra (Suiza), Programa de la ONU para el Medio Ambiente. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Foundations_Report_Final_October.pdf

3 Atkinson, G. y Pearce, D. 1995. Measuring sustainable development. En: D.W. Bromley, ed. Handbook of Environmental Economics, pp. 166–182. Oxford (Reino Unido), Blackwell.

4 Jansson, A., Hammer, M., Folke, C. y Costanza, R., eds. 1994. Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability. Washington, D.C., Island Press.

5 Lord, S. 2020. Valuing the impact of food: Towards practical and comparable monetary valuation of food system impacts. Oxford (Reino Unido), FoodSIVI. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Valuing-the-impact-of-food-Report_Foodsivi.pdf

6 Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. 2002. What is the difference between private and social costs, and how do they relate to pollution and production? En: Education. [Consultado el 14 de marzo de 2023]. https://www.frbsf.org/education/publications/doctor-econ/2002/november/private-social-costs-pollution-production

7 FAO y OMS (Organización Mundial de la Salud). Próximamente. Healthy diet. Nota descriptiva. Roma, FAO.

8 FAO, FIDA (Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola), OMS, PMA (Programa Mundial de Alimentos) y UNICEF (Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia). 2023. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2023: Urbanización, transformación de los sistemas agroalimentarios y dietas saludables a lo largo del continuo rural-urbano. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3017es

9 de Adelhart Toorop, R., Yates, J., Watkins, M., Bernard, J. y de Groot Ruiz, A. 2021. Methodologies for true cost accounting in the food sector. Nature Food, 2(9): 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00364-z

10 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. y Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers. Documento de antecedentes para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO, no. 23-11. Roma, FAO.

11 Acheson, J. 2000. Varieties of Institutional Failure. Keynote Address for the Meetings of the International Association for the Study of Common Property Resources, 3 de junio de 2000, Bloomington (EE. UU.). https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/577/iascpkeynote.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

12 Acheson, J.M. 2006. Institutional Failure in Resource Management. Annual Review of Anthropology, 35(1): 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123238

13 Gibson, C. 1999. Politicians and Poachers: The Political Economy of Wildlife Policy in Africa. Cambridge (Reino Unido), Cambridge University Press.

14 Transparencia Internacional. What is corruption? En: Transparencia Internacional. [Consultado el 21 de julio de 2023]. https://www.transparency.org/en/what-is-corruption

15 Transparencia Internacional y FAO. 2011. Corruption in the Land Sector. Documento de trabajo nº. 04/2011. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/am943e/am943e00.pdf

16 Hudson, B., Hunter, D. y Peckham, S. 2019. Policy failure and the policy-implementation gap: can policy support programs help? Policy Design and Practice, 2(1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/25741292.2018.1540378

17 Norris, E., Kidson, M., Bouchal, P. y Rutter, J. 2014. Doing them Justice: Lessons from four cases of policy implementation. Londres, Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/Policy%20Implementation%20case%20studies%20report%20-%20final.pdf

18 Fontaine, P. 2014. Free riding. Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 36(3): 359–376. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1053837214000376

19 Tisdell, C.A. 2005. Open-access, common-property and natural resource management. En: Economics of Environmental Conservation. Second edition, Chapter 6. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781845428266.00012

20 Fox, J. 2007. The uncertain relationship between transparency and accountability. Development in Practice, 17(4–5): 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614520701469955

21 IOS. 2006. 14040: Environmental management–life cycle assessment– principles and framework. Londres, British Standards Institution.

22 Mogensen, L., Hermansen, J.E., Halberg, N., Dalgaard, R., Vis, J.C. y Smith, B.G. 2009. Life Cycle Assessment Across the Food Supply Chain. En: Sustainability in the Food Industry. pp. 115–144. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118467589.ch5

23 Clément, V. y Moureau, N. 2019. Merit goods. En: A. Marciano & G.B. Ramello, eds. Encyclopedia of Law and Economics. Nueva York (EE. UU.), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7753-2_663

24 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.o 23-12. Roma, FAO.

25 Cabral L.M.B. 2017. Introduction to industrial organization. Second edition. Cambridge (EE. UU.), The MIT Press.

26 OCDE (Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos). 2018. Market concentration. En: OCDE. [Consultado el 9 de marzo de 2023]. https://www.oecd.org/competition/market-concentration.htm

27 Heller, W.P. 1999. Equilibrium market formation causes missing markets. En: G. Chichilnisky, ed. Markets, Information and Uncertainty: Essays in Economic Theory in Honor of Kenneth J. Arrow. Cambridge University Press.

28 Burningham, D. y Davies, J. 2004. Environmental Economics. Oxford (Reino Unido), Heinemann. [Consultado el 9 de marzo de 2023]. https://books.google.it/books?id=qrVd2unmawsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

29 Varian, H.R. 1992. Microeconomic analysis. Third edition. Nueva York (EE. UU.), Norton.

30 Cambridge Dictionary. 2023. Materiality. En: Cambridge Dictionary. [Consultado el 19 de mayo de 2023]. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/materiality

31 Eigenraam, M., Jekums, A., Mcleod, R., Obst, C. y Sharma, K. 2020. Applying the TEEBAgriFood Evaluation Framework: Overarching Implementation Guidance. Global Alliance for the Future of Food. https://futureoffood.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GA_TEEBAgriFood_Guidance.pdf

32 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. y Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO, n.o 23-13. Roma, FAO.

33 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Estudio técnico de la FAO n.º 31 sobre Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola. Roma, FAO.

34 McConnell, A. 2015. What is policy failure? A primer to help navigate the maze. Public Policy and Administration, 30(3–4): 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076714565416

35 Ansell, C., Sørensen, E. y Torfing, J. 2017. Improving policy implementation through collaborative policymaking. Policy & Politics, 45(3): 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14972799760260

36 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

37 IPBES (Plataforma Intergubernamental Científico-normativa sobre Diversidad Biológica y Servicios de los Ecosistemas). 2016. The methodological assessment of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services – Summary for policymakers. Bonn (Alemania), Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/pdf/SPM_Deliverable_3c.pdf

38 Oxford Reference. Business-as-usual scenario. En: Oxford Reference. [Consultado el 31 de julio de 2023]. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609957.001.0001/acref-9780198609957-e-1026

39 IPBES. 2017. Exploratory scenarios. En: IPBES. [Consultado el 5 de abril de 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/exploratory-scenarios

40 IPBES. 2017. Policy-screening (ex-ante) scenarios. En: IPBES. [Consultado el 5 de abril de 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/policy-screening-ex-ante-scenarios

41 IPBES. 2017. Restrospective policy evaluation (ex-post evaluation). En: IPBES. [Consultado el 5 de abril de 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/restrospective-policy-evaluation-ex-post-evaluation

42 Naciones Unidas. 2021. Policy Scenario Analysis using SEEA Ecosystem Accounting. [Consultado el 19 de mayo de 2023]. https://seea.un.org/content/policy-scenario-analysis-using-seea-ecosystem-accounting

43 PNUMA, TEEB, Capitals Coalition y GAFF (Alianza Global para el Futuro de la Alimentación). 2021. True Cost Accounting For Food Systems: Redefining Value To Transform Decision-Making. Technical Briefing Note. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TechnicalBriefingNote.pdf

Capítulo 1

1 Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. Documento de trabajo n. 23-24 de la División de Estadística de la FAO. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cc4337en/cc4337en.pdf

2 FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2022. Aprovechar la automatización de la agricultura para transformar los sistemas agroalimentarios. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9479es

3 Kraak, V.I., Swinburn, B., Lawrence, M. y Harrison, P. 2014. An accountability framework to promote healthy food environments. Public Health Nutrition, 17(11): 2467–2483. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014000093

4 GANESAN (Grupo de alto nivel de expertos en seguridad alimentaria y nutrición). 2017. La nutrición y los sistemas alimentarios. Un informe del Grupo de alto nivel de expertos en seguridad alimentaria y nutrición del Comité de Seguridad Alimentaria Mundial. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i7846es/i7846es.pdf

5 UNSCN (Comité Permanente de Nutrición de las Naciones Unidas). 2016. Impact Assessment of Policies to Support Healthy Food Environments and Healthy Diet – Implementing the Framework for Action of the Second International Conference on Nutrition. Roma. https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/document/DiscPaper3-EN-WEB.pdf

6 Capitals Coalition. The Capitals Approach. En: Capitals Coalition. [Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2022]. https://capitalscoalition.org/capitals-approach

7 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

8 Ewert, B. y Loer, K. 2021. Advancing behavioural public policies: in pursuit of a more comprehensive concept. Policy and Politics, 49(1): 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557320X15907721287475

9 Cesareo, M., Sorgente, A., Labra, M., Palestini, P., Sarcinelli, B., Rossetti, M., Lanz, M. et al. 2022. The effectiveness of nudging interventions to promote healthy eating choices: A systematic review and an intervention among Italian university students. Appetite, 168: 105662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105662

10 Elwin, P., Amadi, E., Mitchell, E. y Hunter, P. 2023. Financial markets roadmap for transforming the global food system. En: Planet Tracker. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Financial-Markets-Roadmap-for-transforming-the-Global-Food-System.pdf

11 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. y Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-13. Roma, FAO.

12 Meybeck, A. y FAO, eds. 2014. Voluntary Standards for Sustainable Food Systems: Challenges and Opportunities – A Workshop of the FAO/UNEP Programme on Sustainable Food Systems. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i3421e/i3421e.pdf

13 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. y Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa – Trends, challenges and priorities. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4492en/cb4492en.pdf

14 TEEB. 2018. TEEB for Agriculture y Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations. Ginebra (Suiza), Programa de la ONU para el Medio Ambiente. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Foundations_Report_Final_October.pdf

15 Gemmill-Herren, B., Baker, L.E. y Daniels, P.A., eds. 2021. True cost accounting for food – Balancing the scale. Londres, Nueva York (EE. UU.), Routledge.

16 Gravelle, H. y Rees, R. 2004. Microeconomics. Third edition. Harlow (Reino Unido), Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

17 Rocha, C. 2007. Food Insecurity as Market Failure: A Contribution from Economics. Journal of Hunger y Environmental Nutrition, 1(4): 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1300/J477v01n04_02

18 Mateo-Sagasta, J., Marjani Zadeh, S. y Turral, H., eds. 2018. More people, more food, worse water? A global review of water pollution from agriculture. Roma y Colombo, FAO e IWMI (Instituto Internacional para el Manejo del Agua). www.fao.org/3/ca0146en/CA0146EN.pdf

19 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-12. Roma, FAO.

20 Kerr, W.A. y Hobbs, J.E. 2022. Is the quest to eat healthy a route to enhancing consumer’s food security? Agriculture y Food Security, 11(1): 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-021-00340-7

21 Musgrave, R.A. 1987. Merit goods. Vol. 3. The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics.

22 Cabral L.M.B. 2017. Introduction to industrial organization. Second edition. Cambridge (EE. UU.), The MIT Press.

23 De Castro, P., Adinolfi, F., Capitanio, F. y Di Falco, S. 2011. Building a New Framework for the Common Agricultural Policy: A Responsibility Towards the Overall Community. EuroChoices, 10(1): 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-692X.2010.00171.x

24 Acheson, J. 2000. Varieties of Institutional Failure. Keynote Address for the Meetings of the International Association for the Study of Common Property Resources, 3 de junio de 2000, Bloomington (EE. UU.). https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/bitstream/handle/10535/577/iascpkeynote.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

25 McConnell, A. 2015. What is policy failure? A primer to help navigate the maze. Public Policy and Administration, 30(3–4): 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952076714565416

26 FAO. 2022. Thinking about the future of food safety – A foresight report. Roma. http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb8667en

27 Transparencia Internacional. Sin fecha. What is corruption? En: Transparencia Internacional. [Consultado el 21 de julio de 2023]. https://www.transparency.org/en/what-is-corruption

28 Transparencia Internacional y FAO. 2011. Corruption in the Land Sector. Documento de trabajo n.º 04/2011. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/am943e/am943e00.pdf

29 Nawaz, F. 2008. Corruption in land administration/land management in Kosovo. Bergen (Noruega), U4 y Transparencia Internacional. https://www.u4.no/publications/corruption-in-land-administration-land-management-in-kosovo.pdf

30 Hudson, B., Hunter, D. y Peckham, S. 2019. Policy failure and the policy-implementation gap: can policy support programs help? Policy Design and Practice, 2(1): 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/25741292.2018.1540378

31 Norris, E., Kidson, M., Bouchal, P. y Rutter, J. 2014. Doing them Justice: Lessons from four cases of policy implementation. Londres, Institute for Government. https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/Policy%20Implementation%20case%20studies%20report%20-%20final.pdf

32 Gibson, C. 1999. Politicians and Poachers: The Political Economy of Wildlife Policy in Africa. Cambridge (Reino Unido), Cambridge University Press.

33 Ansell, C., Sørensen, E. y Torfing, J. 2017. Improving policy implementation through collaborative policymaking. Policy & Politics, 45(3): 467–486. https://doi.org/10.1332/030557317X14972799760260

34 Sumaila, U.R., Pierruci, A., Oyinlola, M.A., Cannas, R., Froese, R., Glaser, S., Jacquet, J. et al. 2022. Aquaculture over-optimism? Frontiers in Marine Science, 9: 984354. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.984354

35 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2023. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2023: Urbanización, transformación de los sistemas agroalimentarios y dietas saludables a lo largo del continuo rural-urbano. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3017es

36 Wolter, M. 2022. Sustainable food systems need True Cost Accounting. Rural 21, 19 de diciembre de 2022. https://www.rural21.com/fileadmin/downloads/2022/en-04/rural2022_04-S09-10.pdf

37 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. y Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-11. Roma, FAO.

38 Lord, S. e Ingram, J.S.I. 2021. Measures of equity for multi-capital accounting. Nature Food, 2(9): 646–654. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00336-3

39 Roe, D., Seddon, N. y Elliott, J. 2019. Biodiversity loss is a development issue. A rapid review of the evidence. Issue paper, April 2019. International Institute for Development. https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/17636IIED.pdf

40 Füssel, H.-M. 2010. How inequitable is the global distribution of responsibility, capability, and vulnerability to climate change: A comprehensive indicator-based assessment. Global Environmental Change, 20(4): 597–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.07.009

41 Perez-Escamilla, R., Bermudez, O., Buccini, G.S., Kumanyika, S., Lutter, C.K., Monsivais, P. y Victora, C. 2018. Nutrition disparities and the global burden of malnutrition. BMJ, 361: k2252. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k2252

42 Rosa, L., Chiarelli, D.D., Rulli, M.C., Dell’Angelo, J. y D’Odorico, P. 2020. Global agricultural economic water scarcity. Science Advances, 6(18): eaaz6031. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaz6031

43 FAO. 2020. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2020: Superar los desafíos relacionados con el agua en la agricultura. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cb1447es/cb1447es.pdf

44 Fundación Rockefeller. 2021. True Cost of Food – Measuring What Matters to Transform the U.S. Food System. Nueva York (EE. UU.). https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/True-Cost-of-Food-Full-Report-Final.pdf

45 Lord, S. 2022. Incurred and avoided external costs from the removal of agricultural trade barriers and farm sector subsidies. Background Report for the Food System Economic Commission. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford.

46 Lord, S. 2020. Valuing the impact of food: Towards practical and comparable monetary valuation of food system impacts. Oxford (Reino Unido), FoodSIVI. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Valuing-the-impact-of-food-Report_Foodsivi.pdf

47 David-Benz, H., Sirdey, N., Deshons, A., Orbell, C. y Herlant, C. 2022. Marco conceptual y metodológico para evaluaciones nacionales y territoriales - Catalizar la transformación sostenible e inclusiva de nuestros sistemas alimentarios. Roma, FAO, Bruselas, Unión Europea y Montpellier (Francia), CIRAD. https://www.fao.org/3/cb8603es/cb8603es.pdf

48 PNUMA, TEEB, Capitals Coalition y GAFF. 2021. True Cost Accounting For Food Systems: Redefining Value To Transform Decision-Making. Technical Briefing Note. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TechnicalBriefingNote.pdf

49 Cambridge Dictionary. Materiality. En: Cambridge Dictionary. [Consultado el 19 de mayo de 2023]. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/materiality

50 Impact Institute. 2023. The current field of true cost accounting: An analysis of the similarities and differences of True Cost Accounting frameworks. TCA Accelerator. https://tcaaccelerator.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/The-Current-Field-of-True-Cost-Accounting-Final.pdf

51 Capitals Coalition. 2023. TEEB for agriculture and food: operational guidelines for business. Putting nature and people at the centre of food system transformation. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TEEB-for-Agriculture-and-Food-Operational-Guidelines-for-Business.pdf

Capítulo 2

1 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Estudio técnico de la FAO n.º 31 sobre Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola. Roma, FAO.

2 FAO. 2014. Food wastage footprint – Full-cost accounting. Final report. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i3991e/i3991e.pdf

3 TEEB. 2015. TEEB for Agriculture & Food: an interim report. Ginebra (Suiza), Programa de la ONU para el Medio Ambiente. https://www.teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/TEEBAgFood_Interim_Report_2015_web.pdf

4 Food System Economics Commission. 2023. Food, Planet, Health: Moving towards healthy, inclusive, and nature-positive food systems. [Consultado el 23 de mayo de 2023]. https://foodsystemeconomics.org

5 FAO. 2021. Informe del Consejo de la FAO. 166.o período de sesiones, 26 de abril a 1 de mayo de 2021. CL 166/REP. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/nf693es/nf693es.pdf

6 FAO. 2022. El estado de los bosques del mundo 2022. Vías forestales hacia la recuperación verde y la creación de economías inclusivas, resilientes y sostenibles. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9360es

7 Kruid, S., Macedo, M.N., Gorelik, S.R., Walker, W., Moutinho, P., Brando, P.M., Castanho, A. et al. 2021. Beyond Deforestation: Carbon Emissions From Land Grabbing and Forest Degradation in the Brazilian Amazon. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 4: 645282. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2021.645282

8 Hosonuma, N., Herold, M., De Sy, V., De Fries, R.S., Brockhaus, M., Verchot, L., Angelsen, A. y Romijn, E. 2012. An assessment of deforestation and forest degradation drivers in developing countries. Environmental Research Letters, 7(4): 044009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044009

9 FAO. 2020. Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales 2020 - Informe principal. Roma. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9825es

10 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

11 Mathers, C.D. 2020. History of global burden of disease assessment at the World Health Organization. Archives of Public Health, 78(1): 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00458-3

12 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2021. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2021. Transformación de los sistemas alimentarios en aras de la seguridad alimentaria, una nutrición mejorada y dietas asequibles y saludables para todos. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4474es/cb4474es.pdf

13 Cattaneo, A., Sadiddin, A., Vaz, S., Conti, V., Holleman, C., Sánchez, M.V. y Torero, M. 2023. Viewpoint: Ensuring affordability of diets in the face of shocks. Food Policy, 117: 102470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2023.102470

14 FAO. 2021. El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2021. Lograr que los sistemas agroalimentarios sean más resilientes a las perturbaciones y tensiones. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4476es/cb4476es.pdf

15 Jaffee, S., Henson, S., Unnevehr, L., Grace, D. y Cassou, E. 2019. The Safe Food Imperative: Accelerating Progress in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Washington, D.C., Banco Mundial. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e018c0ed-0e18-517d-b733-cbfc90f6a371/content

16 FoodSIVI. 2023. SPIQ-FS. [Consultado el 1 de junio de 2023]. https://foodsivi.org/what-we-do/projects/spiq-food-system-v0

17 Leimbach, M., Kriegler, E., Roming, N. y Schwanitz, J. 2017. Future growth patterns of world regions – A GDP scenario approach. Global Environmental Change, 42: 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.005

18 FOLU. 2019. Growing Better: Ten Critical Transitions to Transform Food and Land Use. Londres. https://www.foodandlandusecoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FOLU-GrowingBetter-GlobalReport.pdf

19 Springmann, M. 2020. Valuation of the health and climate-change benefits of healthy diets. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2020. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.º 20-03. Roma, FAO.

20 Hendriks, S., de Groot Ruiz, A., Acosta, M.H., Baumers, H., Galgani, P., Mason-D’Croz, D., Godde, C. et al. 2023. The True Cost of Food: A Preliminary Assessment. En: J. von Braun, K. Afsana, L.O. Fresco & M.H.A. Hassan, eds. Science and Innovations for Food Systems Transformation, pp. 581–601. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5_32

21 Galgani, P., Woltjer, G., de Adelhart Toorop, R., de Groot Ruiz, A. y Varoucha, E. 2021. Land use, Land use change, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: True pricing method for agri-food products. Wageningen (Reino de los Países Bajos), Wageningen University and Research. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/fulltext/555581

22 Lord, S. 2021. Estimation of marginal damage costs for loss of ecosystem services from land-use change or ecosystem degradation. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-3-Land-Use_DRAFT.pdf

23 OMS. 2015. OMS estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases. Foodborne disease burden epidemiology Reference Group 2007–2015. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/199350/9789241565165_eng.pdf?sequence=1

24 David-Benz, H., Sirdey, N., Deshons, A., Orbell, C. y Herlant, C. 2022. Marco conceptual y metodológico para evaluaciones nacionales y territoriales - Catalizar la transformación sostenible e inclusiva de nuestros sistemas alimentarios. Roma, FAO, Bruselas, Unión Europea y Montpellier (Francia), CIRAD. https://www.fao.org/3/cb8603es/cb8603es.pdf

Capítulo 3

1 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-12. Roma, FAO.

2 FAO. 2021. Guidelines on data disaggregation for SDG Indicators using survey data. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cb3253en/cb3253en.pdf

3 FAO. 2021. The impact of disasters and crises on agriculture and food security: 2021. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cb3673en/cb3673en.pdf

4 Mullié, W.C., Prakash, A., Müller, A. y Lazutkaite, E. 2023. Insecticide Use against Desert Locust in the Horn of Africa 2019–2021 Reveals a Pressing Need for Change. Agronomy, 13(3): 819. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13030819

5 FAO. 2022. Cómo Somalia utilizó bioplaguicidas para vencer a la langosta del desierto. En: FAO. [Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2023]. https://www.fao.org/fao-stories/article/es/c/1604420/

6 Sandhu, H., Regan, C., Perveen, S. y Patel, V. 2021. Methods and frameworks: the tools to assess externalities. En: B. Gemmill-Herren, L.E. Baker y P.A. Daniels, eds. True cost accounting for food – Balancing the scale, Chapter 4. Londres, Nueva York (EE. UU.), Routledge.

7 TEEBAgriFood. 2022. Indonesia. En: TEEB. [Consultado el 5 de marzo de 2023]. https://teebweb.org/our-work/agrifood/country-implementation/eupi2019/indonesia

8 TEEB. 2018. TEEB for Agriculture y Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations. Ginebra (Suiza), Programa de la ONU para el Medio Ambiente. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Foundations_Report_Final_October.pdf

9 Pascual, U., Balvanera, P., Díaz, S., Pataki, G., Roth, E., Stenseke, M., Watson, R.T. et al. 2017. Valuing nature’s contributions to people: the IPBES approach. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 26–27: 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.12.006

10 de Adelhart Toorop, R., Yates, J., Watkins, M., Bernard, J. y de Groot Ruiz, A. 2021. Methodologies for true cost accounting in the food sector. Nature Food, 2(9): 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00364-z

11 Fundación Rockefeller y Center for Good Food Purchasing. 2021. True Cost of Food: School Meals Case Study. https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/True-Cost-of-Food-School-Meals-Case-Study-Full-Report-Final.pdf

12 Bandel, T., Kayatz, B., Doucet, T. y Leutner, N. 2020. Der teure Preis des Billigfleischs: Wer Fleisch konsumiert, zahlt nur einen Bruchteil der wahren Kosten – zu Lasten von Umwelt und Klima [The expensive price of cheap meat: Anyone who consumes meat only pays a fraction of the true costs – at the expense of the environment and climate]. Hamburg (Alemania), Soil & More Impacts GmbH. https://www.greenpeace.de/publikationen/s03201_landwirtschaft_studie_wahre_kosten_fleisch_2020.pdf

13 Khon Kaen University. 2022. Measuring What Matters in Rice Systems: TEEBAgriFood Assessment Thailand, focus on the Northeast region. Key messages, August 2022. TEEB. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/5-TEEBAgriFood-IKI-Key-messages.pdf

14 de Adelhart Toorop, R., van Veen, B., Verdonk, L. y Schmiedler, B. 2023. True cost accounting applications for agrifood systems policymakers. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-11. Roma, FAO.

15 IPBES. 2017. Scenarios. En: IPBES. [Consultado el 14 de abril de 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/node/16146

16 Springmann, M. 2020. Valuation of the health and climate-change benefits of healthy diets. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2020. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.º 20–03. Roma, FAO.

17 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2020. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2020. Transformación de los sistemas alimentarios para que promuevan dietas asequibles y saludables. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9692es

18 IPBES. 2017. Policy-screening (ex-ante) scenarios. En: IPBES. [Consultado el 5 de abril de 2023]. https://www.ipbes.net/policy-screening-ex-ante-scenarios

19 Wardhany, M. y Adzim, F. 2018. Determinant of Cocoa Export in Indonesia. Economics Development Analysis Journal, 7(3): 286–293. https://doi.org/10.15294/edaj.v7i3.25262

20 Rahim, A., Antara, M., Rauf, R.A., Lamusa, A., Safitri, D. y Mulyo, J.H. 2020. Sustainability of cocoa production in Indonesia. Australian Journal of Crop Science, 14(6): 997–1003. https://doi.org/10.21475/ajcs.20.14.06.p2510

21 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. y Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-13. Roma, FAO.

22 FMI y NielsenIQ. 2022. Transparency in an Evolving Omnichannel World. En: FMI. [Consultado el 5 de abril de 2023]. https://www.fmi.org/forms/store/ProductFormPublic/transparency-evolving-omnichannel-world

23 Capitals Coalition. 2023. TEEB for agriculture and food: operational guidelines for business. Putting nature and people at the centre of food system transformation. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TEEB-for-Agriculture-and-Food-Operational-Guidelines-for-Business.pdf

24 True Cost Initiative. 2022. True Cost Accounting Agrifood Handbook – Practical guidelines for the food and farming sector on impact measurement, valuation and reporting. https://tca2f.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/TCA_Agrifood_Handbook.pdf

25 Transparent. 2021. Corporate Natural Capital Accounting – from building blocks to a path for standardization. Understanding the landscape, leading applications, challenges and opportunities. https://capitalscoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Transparent-benchmarking-final.pdf

26 Impact Institute. 2020. Integrated Profit & Loss Assessment Methodology (IAM): Supplement Impact Contribution. Version 1.0. https://www.impactinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Impact-Institute-IAM-Supplement-Impact-Contribution-.pdf

27 Global Farm Metric. 2022. The Global Farm Metric Framework – Categories, sub-categories and indicators explained. https://www.globalfarmmetric.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/GFM-fwk-2023.pdf

28 True Price Foundation e Impact Economy Foundation. 2020. Principles for True Pricing. Consultation Draft. True Price Foundation. https://trueprice.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2020-03-04-Principles-for-True-Pricing-Trueprice.org-Consultation-Draft.pdf

Capítulo 4

1 FAO y FIAN Internacional. 2017. Poniendo en práctica las Directrices Voluntarias de Tenencia. Una Guía de Aprendizaje para las Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i7763s/i7763s.pdf

2 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

3 Rosendal, G.K. y Schei, P.J. 2014. How may REDD+ affect the practical, legal and institutional framework for ‘Payment for ecosystem services’ in Costa Rica? Ecosystem Services, 9: 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.04.009

4 Sales, E., Rodas, O., Valenzuela, O., Hillbrand, A. y Sabogal, C. 2016. On the way to restore Guatemala’s degraded lands: Creating governance conditions. World Development Perspectives, 4: 16–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2016.11.010

5 Benton, T., Bieg, C., Harwatt, H., Pudasaini, R. y Wellesley, L. 2021. Food system impacts on biodiversity loss. Three levers for food system transformation in support of nature. Londres, Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/2021-02-03-food-system-biodiversity-loss-benton-et-al_0.pdf

6 OCDE. 2019. Evaluating the environmental impact of agricultural policies. OCDE Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Paper, n.º 130. París. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/add0f27c-en.pdf?expires=1695656289&id=id&accname=ocid195767&checksum=3FE61D99A1B06E9D76743002FB1E28CE

7 OMC (Organización Mundial del Comercio). 2023. Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies. En: OMC. [Consultado el 19 de julio de 2023]. https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_e.htm

8 Fern. 2023. What is the EU Regulation on deforestation-free products and why should you care? Bruselas. https://www.fern.org/fileadmin/uploads/fern/Documents/2023/What_is_the_EU_Regulation_on_deforestation_free_products_and_why_should_you_care.pdf

9 FAO. 2022. El estado mundial de la pesca y la acuicultura 2022. Hacia la transformación azul. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cc0461es/cc0461es.pdf

10 FAO, FIDA, OPS (Organización Panamericana de la Salud), PMA y UNICEF. 2023. Panorama regional de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional - América Latina y el Caribe 2022: hacia una mejor asequibilidad de las dietas saludables. Santiago de Chile. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3859es

11 Calel, R. 2013. Carbon markets: a historical overview. WIREs Climate Change, 4(2): 107–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.208

12 Springmann, M. y Freund, F. 2022. Options for reforming agricultural subsidies from health, climate, and economic perspectives. Nature Communications, 13(1): 82. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27645-2

13 Cassou, E. 2018. The greening of farm support programs: international experiences with agricultural subsidy reform. Washington, D.C., Banco Mundial. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/827371554284501204/pdf/The-Greening-of-Farm-Support-Programs-International-Experiences-with-Agricultural-Subsidy-Reform.pdf

14 OCDE. 2015. Agricultural Policies in Viet Nam 2015. OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews. París. https://www.oecd.org/countries/vietnam/OECD-Review-Agricultural-Policies-Vietnam-Vietnamese-Preliminaryversion.pdf

15 Pernechele, V., Fontes, F., Baborska, R., Nkuingoua, J., Pan, X. y Tuyishime, C. 2021. Public expenditure on food and agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa – Trends, challenges and priorities. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cb4492en/cb4492en.pdf

16 Elwin, P., Amadi, E., Mitchell, E. y Hunter, P. 2023. Financial markets roadmap for transforming the global food system. En: Planet Tracker. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Financial-Markets-Roadmap-for-transforming-the-Global-Food-System.pdf

17 Riemer, O., Mairaj Shah, T.M. y Müller, A. 2023. The role of true cost accounting in guiding agrifood businesses and investments towards sustainability. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-13. Roma, FAO.

18 French, S.A. 2003. Pricing effects on food choices. Journal of Nutrition, 133(3): 841S-843S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.3.841S

19 BEUC (Organización Europea de Consumidores). 2020. One bite at a time: Consumers and the transition to sustainable food – Analysis of a survey of European consumers on attitudes towards sustainable food. Bruselas, BEUC. https://www.beuc.eu/sites/default/files/publications/beuc-x-2020-042_consumers_and_the_transition_to_sustainable_food.pdf

20 Vittersø, G., Torjusen, H., Thorjussen, C.B., Schjøll, A. y Kjærnes, U. 2019. Survey on Public Opinion in Europe regarding contentious inputs – a report. Organic-PLUS. https://organicplusnet.files.wordpress.com/2019/11/d2.2-o-survey-on-puplic-opinion-regarding-contentious-inputs.pdf

21 Thaler, R.H. y Sunstein, C.R. 2009. Nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Revised and expanded edition. Nueva York (EE. UU.), Penguin Books.

22 Galizzi, M.M. 2014. What Is Really Behavioral in Behavioral Health Policy? And Does It Work? Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 36(1): 25–60. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppt036

23 Corley, R. y Tinker, P. 2016. The oil palm. Fifth edition. Chichester (Reino Unido), Wiley Blackwell.

24 FAO. 2022. FRA 2020 Remote Sensing Survey. FAO Forestry Paper, n.º 186. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/cb9970en/cb9970en.pdf

25 Ayompe, L.M., Schaafsma, M. y Egoh, B.N. 2021. Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing. Journal of Cleaner Production, 278: 123914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123914

26 Raynaud, J., Fobelets, V., Georgieva, A., Joshi, S., Kristanto, L., de Groot Ruiz, A., Bullock, S. y Hardwicke, R. 2016. Improving Business Decision Making: Valuing the Hidden Costs of Production in the Palm Oil Sector. A study for The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity for Agriculture and Food (TEEBAgriFood) Program. Trucost.

27 Gaveau, D.L.A., Locatelli, B., Salim, M.A., Husnayaen, Manurung, T., Descals, A., Angelsen, A., Meijaard, E. y Sheil, D. 2022. Slowing deforestation in Indonesia follows declining oil palm expansion and lower oil prices. PLoS ONE, 17(3): e0266178. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266178

28 PNUD (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo) China. 2020. Mapping the Palm Oil Value Chain Opportunities for sustainable palm oil in Indonesia and China. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/cn/Palm_oil_report_EN.pdf

29 Andrianto, A., Komarudin, H. y Pacheco, P. 2019. Expansion of Oil Palm Plantations in Indonesia’s Frontier: Problems of Externalities and the Future of Local and Indigenous Communities. Land, 8(4): 56. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8040056

30 FAO. 2023. Cultivos y productos de ganadería. En: FAOSTAT. [Consultado el 07 de marzo de 2023]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/QCL

31 Tan, Y.D. y Lim, J.S. 2019. Feasibility of palm oil mill effluent elimination towards sustainable Malaysian palm oil industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 111: 507–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.043

32 Berenschot, W., Dhiaulhaq, A., Afrizal y Hospes, O. 2021. Palm oil expansion and conflict in Indonesia – an evaluation of the effectiveness of conflict resolution mechanisms. Policy Report, n.º 5. Leiden, POCAJI. https://www.kitlv.nl/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ENG_Ekspansi-Konflik-Kelapa-Sawit-di-Indonesia-EN-FA.pdf

33 Voora, V., Larrea, C., Bermudez, S. y Balino, S. 2019. Global Market Report: Palm Oil. En: IISD. Manitoba (Canadá). https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/ssi-global-market-report-palm-oil.pdf

34 Watts, J.D., Pasaribu, K., Irawan, S., Tacconi, L., Martanila, H., Wiratama, C.G.W., Musthofa, F.K. et al. 2021. Challenges faced by smallholders in achieving sustainable palm oil certification in Indonesia. World Development, 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105565

35 Ruysschaert, D. y Salles, D. 2014. Towards global voluntary standards: Questioning the effectiveness in attaining conservation goals. The case of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). Ecological Economics, 107: 438–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.09.016

36 Peteru, S., Komarudin, H. y Brady, M. 2022. Sustainability certifications, approaches, and tools for oil palm in Indonesia and Malaysia. European Forest Institute. https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/flegtredd/KAMI/Resources/Sustainability%20certifications%2C%20approaches%2C%20and%20tools%20for%20oil%20palm%20in%20Indonesia%20and%20Malaysia%20report.pdf

37 Qaim, M., Sibhatu, K.T., Siregar, H. y Grass, I. 2020. Environmental, Economic, and Social Consequences of the Oil Palm Boom. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 12(1): 321–344. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-110119-024922

38 Pacheco, P., Schoneveld, G., Dermawan, A., Komarudin, H. y Djama, M. 2020. Governing sustainable palm oil supply: Disconnects, complementarities, and antagonisms between state regulations and private standards. Regulation & Governance, 14(3): 568–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12220

39 Rincón, L.E., Valencia, M.J., Hernández, V., Matallana, L.G. y Cardona, C.A. 2015. Optimization of the Colombian biodiesel supply chain from oil palm crop based on techno-economical and environmental criteria. Energy Economics, 47: 154–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2014.10.018

40 FAO. 2022. El futuro de la alimentación y la agricultura: factores y desencadenantes de la transformación. Roma. www.fao.org/3/cc0959en/cc0959en.pdf (versión resumida en español: https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1024es)

41 Rawat, S. 2020. Global volatility of public agricultural R&D expenditure. Advances in Food Security and Sustainability, 5: 119–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.af2s.2020.08.001

42 CGIAR (Sistema del CGIAR). Assessing CGIAR’s return on investment. En: CGIAR. [Consultado el 25 de abril de 2023]. https://www.cgiar.org/annual-report/performance-report-2020/assessing-cgiars-return-on-investment

43 Soil & More Impacts y TMG (Think Tank for Sustainability). 2020. True Cost Accounting – Inventory Report. Global Alliance for the Future of Food. https://www.natureandmore.com/files/documenten/tca-inventory-report.pdf

44 Lord, S. 2020. Valuing the impact of food: Towards practical and comparable monetary valuation of food system impacts. Oxford (Reino Unido), FoodSIVI. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Valuing-the-impact-of-food-Report_Foodsivi.pdf

45 Eigenraam, M., Jekums, A., Mcleod, R., Obst, C. y Sharma, K. 2020. Applying the TEEBAgriFood Evaluation Framework: Overarching Implementation Guidance. Alianza Global para el Futuro de la Alimentación. https://futureoffood.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/GA_TEEBAgriFood_Guidance.pdf

46 True Cost Initiative. 2022. True Cost Accounting Agrifood Handbook – Practical guidelines for the food and farming sector on impact measurement, valuation and reporting. https://tca2f.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/TCA_Agrifood_Handbook.pdf

47 Comisión Europea. 2023. EU taxonomy for sustainable activities. En: Comisión Europea. [Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2023]. https://finance.ec.europa.eu/sustainable-finance/tools-and-standards/eu-taxonomy-sustainable-activities_en

48 Comisión Europea. 2023. Corporate sustainability reporting. En: Comisión Europea. [Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2023]. https://finance.ec.europa.eu/capital-markets-union-and-financial-markets/company-reporting-and-auditing/company-reporting/corporate-sustainability-reporting_en

49 Deconinck, K. y Giner, C. 2023. Overcoming evidence gaps on food systems: Synthesis. Vol. 199. OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers 199. París, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/043db97b-en

50 FAO. 2023. The EX-ACT suite of tools. En: FAO. https://www.fao.org/in-action/epic/ex-act-tool/suite-of-tools/en

51 Markandya, A. 2023. Accounting for the hidden costs of agrifood systems in data-scarce contexts. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO n.^o 23-12. Roma, FAO.

52 Hilborn, R., Banobi, J., Hall, S.J., Pucylowski, T. y Walsworth, T.E. 2018. The environmental cost of animal source foods. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 16(6): 329–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1822

53 Van Der Werf, H.M.G., Knudsen, M.T. y Cederberg, C. 2020. Towards better representation of organic agriculture in life cycle assessment. Nature Sustainability, 3(6): 419–425. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0489-6

54 Deconinck, K. y Toyama, L. 2022. Environmental impacts along food supply chains: Methods, findings, and evidence gaps. París, OCDE. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/48232173-en.pdf?expires=1695733489&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=56B8AC44F4E99F859C1FE9A7ECAC51E5

55 FAO. 2015. Desarrollo de cadenas de valor alimentarias sostenibles: principios rectores. Roma. https://www.fao.org/3/i3953s/i3953s.pdf

56 FAO. 2021. Aprovechar el potencial de la pesca y la acuicultura en África, el Caribe y el Pacífico. https://www.fao.org/3/ca7966es/CA7966ES.pdf

57 FISH4ACP. 2021. Developing sustainable value chains for aquatic products: A methodological brief for analysis and design. Draft Document – Septiembre de 2021. https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/FISH4ACP/documents/FISH4ACP_VCAD_Methodological_Brief_vSept2021.pdf

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69 OCDE. 2008. The Polluter Pays Principle: Definition, Analysis, Implementation. París. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264044845-en

70 Barbier, E. y Markandya, A. 2013. A New Blueprint for a Green Economy. First edition. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203097298

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73 Ding, H., Markandya, A., Feltran-Barbieri, R., Calmon, M., Cervera, M., Duraisami, M., Singh, R. et al. 2021. Repurposing Agricultural Subsidies to Restore Degraded Farmland and Grow Rural Prosperity. Washington, D.C., World Resources Institute. https://doi.org/10.46830/wrirpt.20.00013

74 Pagiola, S., Arcenas, A. y Platais, G. 2005. Can Payments for Environmental Services Help Reduce Poverty? An Exploration of the Issues and the Evidence to Date from Latin America. World Development, 33(2): 237–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.07.011

75 Schaeffer, P.V. y Willardsen, K. 2020. A Note on the Tinbergen Rule. West Virginia University (EE. UU.). https://www.petervschaeffer.com/uploads/7/4/3/3/74334295/a_note_on_the_relevance_of_tinbergen.pdf

76 Khon Kaen University. 2022. Measuring What Matters in Rice Systems: TEEBAgriFood Assessment Thailand, focus on the Northeast region. Key messages, August 2022. TEEB. https://teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/5-TEEBAgriFood-IKI-Key-messages.pdf

77 FAO. 2023. DIEM – Impact. En: FAO. [Consultado el 19 de julio de 2023]. https://data-in-emergencies.fao.org/pages/impact

78 Banco Mundial. 2021. Uganda Economic Update, 17th Edition, June 2021 – From Crisis to Green Resilient Growth – Investing in Sustainable Land Management and Climate Smart Agriculture. Washington, D.C. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/265371623083730798/pdf/Uganda-Economic-Update-17th-Edition-From-Crisis-to-Green-Resilient-Growth-Investing-in-Sustainable-Land-Management-and-Climate-Smart-Agriculture.pdf

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82 Ignaciuk, A., Kwon, J., Maggio, G., Mastrorillo, M. y Sitko, N.J. 2021. Harvesting trees to harvest cash crops: The role of internal migrants in forest land conversion in Uganda. Documento de trabajo de la División de Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola de la FAO 21-08. Roma, FAO. http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb7072en

83 Bunn, C., Lundy, M., Läderach, P., Fernández Kolb, P. y Castro-Llanos, F.A. 2019. Climate-smart coffee in Uganda. Cali (Colombia), CIAT. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/101331/Uganda%20Coffee%20brief.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Anexo 1

1 Lord, S. 2023. Hidden costs of agrifood systems and recent trends from 2016 to 2023. Documento de antecedentes elaborado para El estado mundial de la agricultura y la alimentación 2023. Estudio técnico de la FAO n.º 31 sobre Economía del Desarrollo Agrícola. Roma, FAO.

2 Leimbach, M., Kriegler, E., Roming, N. y Schwanitz, J. 2017. Future growth patterns of world regions – A GDP scenario approach. Global Environmental Change, 42: 215–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.005

3 FAO, FIDA, OMS, PMA y UNICEF. 2022. El estado de la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición en el mundo 2022. Adaptación de las políticas alimentarias y agrícolas para hacer las dietas saludables más asequibles. Roma, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639es

4 Afshin, A., Sur, P.J., Fay, K.A., Cornaby, L., Ferrara, G., Salama, J.S., Mullany, E.C. et al. 2019. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet, 393(10184): 1958–1972. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8”https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8

5 FAO. 2023. Distribución de emisiones. En: FAOSTAT. [Consultado el 5 de junio de 2023]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/es/#data/EM/

6 FAO. 2023. AQUASTAT. [Consultado el 5 de junio de 2023]. https://tableau.apps.fao.org/views/ReviewDashboard-v1/country_dashboard?%3Adisplay_count=n&%3Aembed=y&%3AisGuestRedirectFromVizportal=y&%3Aorigin=viz_share_link&%3AshowAppBanner=false&%3AshowVizHome=n

7 Winkler, K., Fuchs, R., Rounsevell, M.D.A. y Herold, M. 2020. HILDA+ Global Land Use Change between 1960 and 2019. En: PANGAEA. [Consultado el 1 de junio de 2023]. https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.921846

8 Comisión Europea. 2023. Global Air Pollutant Emissions – EDGAR v6.1. En: EDGAR - Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research. [Consultado el 1 de marzo de 2023]. https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset_ap61

9 Oreggioni, G.D., Monforti Ferraio, F., Crippa, M., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Guizzardi, D., Solazzo, E., Duerr, M., Perry, M. y Vignati, E. 2021. Climate change in a changing world: Socio-economic and technological transitions, regulatory frameworks and trends on global greenhouse gas emissions from EDGAR v.5.0. Global Environmental Change, 70: 102350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102350

10 Van Damme, M., Clarisse, L., Whitburn, S., Hadji-Lazaro, J., Hurtmans, D., Clerbaux, C. y Coheur, P.-F. 2018. Industrial and agricultural ammonia point sources exposed. Nature, 564(7734): 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0747-1

11 Beusen, A.H.W., Van Beek, L.P.H., Bouwman, A.F., Mogollón, J.M. y Middelburg, J.J. 2015. Coupling global models for hydrology and nutrient loading to simulate nitrogen and phosphorus retention in surface water – description of IMAGE–GNM and analysis of performance. Geoscientific Model Development, 8(12): 4045–4067. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-4045-2015

12 Beusen, A.H.W., Bouwman, A.F., Van Beek, L.P.H., Mogollón, J.M. y Middelburg, J.J. 2016. Global riverine N and P transport to ocean increased during the 20th century despite increased retention along the aquatic continuum. Biogeosciences, 13(8): 2441–2451. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-13-2441-2016

13 FAO. 2022. Suite of Food Security Indicators. En: FAOSTAT. [Consultado el 22 de septiembre de 2022]. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS

14 Banco Mundial. 2023. Poverty gap at $3.65 a day (2017 PPP) (%). En: Banco Mundial. [Consultado el 5 de junio de 2023]. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC.GP

15 Davis, B., Mane, E., Gurbuzer, L.Y., Caivano, G., Piedrahita, N., Schneider, K., Azhar, N. et al. 2023. Estimating global and country-level employment in agrifood systems. Documento de trabajo n.º 23/34 de la División de Estadística de la FAO. Roma, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/cc4337en/cc4337en.pdf

16 Castaneda, A., Doan, D., Newhouse, D., Nguyen, M.C., Uematsu, H. y Azevedo, J.P. 2016. Who are the Poor in the Developing World? Banco Mundial, Washington, D.C. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/84ef3eb9-aa97-5f9f-9960-c09d047503c4/content

17 IHME (Instituto para la Medición y Evaluación de la Salud). 2022. GBD Results. [Consultado el 23 de septiembre de 2022]. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results

18 Drewnowski, A. 2007. The real contribution of added sugars and fats to obesity. Epidemiologic Reviews, 29(1): 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxm011

19 Murray, C.J.L., Aravkin, A.Y., Zheng, P., Abbafati, C., Abbas, K.M., Abbasi-Kangevari, M., Abd-Allah, F. et al. 2020. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 396(10258): 1223–1249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2

20 Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S., Garnett, T. et al. 2019. Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393(10170): 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4

21 Lord, S. 2022. Adjustments to SPIQ-FS marginal damage cost models to estimate damages in future scenarios. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-C-Temporal-Projection-of-Costs.pdf

22 Lord, S. 2021. Estimation of marginal damage costs from reactive nitrogen emissions to air, surface waters and groundwater. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-4-Nitrogen_DRAFT.pdf

23 Lord, S. 2021. Estimation of marginal damage costs for loss of ecosystem services from land-use change or ecosystem degradation. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-3-Land-Use_DRAFT.pdf

24 Lord, S. 2021. Estimations of marginal social costs for GHG emissions. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-1-GHG_DRAFT.pdf

25 Lord, S. 2021. Estimation of marginal damage costs from water scarcity due to blue water withdrawal. Documentation of the SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. https://foodsivi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/SPIQ-v0-A-Marginal-Costs-2-Water_DRAFT.pdf

26 Paulus, E. y Lord, S. 2022. Estimation of marginal damage costs from consumption related health risks. SPIQ-FS Dataset Version 0. Oxford (Reino Unido), University of Oxford.

27 Nordhaus, W.D. 2017. Revisiting the social cost of carbon. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(7): 1518–1523. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609244114

28 IWG-SCGG. 2016. Technical Support Document: Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon for Regulatory Impact Analysis. Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases. Washington, D.C., Gobierno de los Estados Unidos. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-12/documents/sc_co2_tsd_august_2016.pdf

29 IWG-SCGG. 2016. Technical Support Document: Technical Update of the Social Cost of Carbon, Methane and Nitrous Oxide Interim Estimates under Executive Order 13990. Interagency Working Group on Social Cost of Greenhouse Gases. Washington, D.C., Gobierno de los Estados Unidos. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/TechnicalSupportDocument_SocialCostofCarbonMethaneNitrousOxide.pdf

30 Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K. et al. 1997. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387(6630): 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/387253a0

31 De Groot, R., Brander, L., Van Der Ploeg, S., Costanza, R., Bernard, F., Braat, L., Christie, M. et al. 2012. Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosystem Services, 1(1): 50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.07.005

32 OIT (Organización Internacional del Trabajo). 2022. Datos. En: ILOSTAT. [Consultado el 15 de marzo de 2023]. https://ilostat.ilo.org/es/data

33 Banco Mundial. 2023. Agriculture, value added (% of GDP). En: Banco Mundial. [Consultado el 15 de marzo de 2023]. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/jobs/Series/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS#